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Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792DOI: 10.17472/LJRHSS
LONDON JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
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Maun Convergences
and Divergences
External Human
Conflicts
Narrative Interpretive Perceptions of Property
Stakeholders
Discrimination against
Centers Ethnic Minorities
Maun Convergences
and Divergences
Connecting Curriculum in
Japan
Friendship and Elective Political Activities of Sheikh
Mujibur
Synthesis of Federal Colleges
Affinities of Education
LONDON JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
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London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
ABSTRACT
Scan to know paper details andauthor's profile
Classification: For Code:
Language: English
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The Trends and the Issues of the Connecting Curriculum in Japan
The purpose of this paper is to examine trends of the policies in the Connecting Curriculum Between
Kindergarten and Elementary School into the two approaches to aim at the school reform and prevent the
First Grade Problems, and to examine the content and the characteristics of the recent educational
innovation. In the former issue, the government promote the Connecting Curriculum Between
Kindergarten and Elementary School as a national strategy of educational reform based substantially on
the concept of “the basis of learning” in early childhood education, and tried to spread to the educational
scenes and to construct "collaborative learning." In the latter issue, Start Curriculum of elementary schools
has the problem of replacing the practice of the living environment studies with the adaptation of children
to school.
Hijirigaoka Education and Welfare College
Keywords: education principle, connecting curriculum, kindergarten, elementary school.
Atsushi FURUYA
© 2019. Atsushi FURUYA. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons .org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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1 © 2019 London Journals Press Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
The Trends and the Issues of the Connecting Curriculum in Japan
Atsushi FURUYA
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to examine trends of
the policies in the Connecting Curriculum
Between Kindergarten and Elementary School
into the two approaches to aim at the school
reform and prevent the First Grade Problems,
and to examine the content and the
characteristics of the recent educational
innovation. In the former issue, the government
promote the Connecting Curriculum Between
Kindergarten and Elementary School as a
national strategy of educational reform based
substantially on the concept of “the basis of
learning” in early childhood education, and tried
to spread to the educational scenes and to
construct "collaborative learning." In the latter
issue, Start Curriculum of elementary schools has
the problem of replacing the practice of the living
environment studies with the adaptation of
children to school.
Keyword: education principle, connecting
curriculum , kindergarten, elementary school.
Author: Hijirigaoka Education and Welfare College
Senior Lecturer − Japan.
I. INTRODUCTION
In July 2014, the Education Rebuilding
Implementation Council submitted the proposal
"The Future State of the Educational System" on
the revision of the school system from early
childhood education to university to Prime
Minister Shinzo Abe. The Future State of the
Educational System required to make early
childhood education for children 3 to 5 years free
of charge in stages and to put ahead of the starting
age of compulsory education to 5 years. The
framework of the free of charge for early
childhood education and compulsory education of
5 years would bring about a considerable
structural change in the post-war educational
system. At the same time, the connection between
early childhood education and elementary school
education has promoted since the 2000s, and the
curriculum policies of the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
regarding this.. In the curriculum policies for over
a few decades, the new ideas proposed one after
another, and early childhood education basically
has been organized as a part of compulsory
education.
An overview of MEXT policies shows that there
are two approaches to the method of reform. One
is an approach that aims to reform the school
system (from now on referred to as “School
System Reform Approach”), and the other is to
prevent the First Grade Problems (from now on
referred to as "First Grade Problem Preventive
Approach"). Althoug there is a lot of overlap
between the two approaches in proposals and
arguments, there also is issues and conflicts
which are unique to them. Although the idea and
the concept of connection are discussed in school
the School System Reform Approach, the various
problems have emerged in the practical situation
of the curriculum. While the specific measures for
the First Grade Problem Preventive Approach are
taken mainly at the elementary schools, the
comprehensive viewpoint on what the school
education should be is weak. Therefore, in this
paper, I would like to consider the contents and
the characteristics of the educational policies for
the curriculum for connecting early childhood
education and elementary school education (from
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2 Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0 © 2019 London Journals Press
The Trends and the Issues of the Connecting Curriculum in Japan
now on referred to as the Connecting Curriculum
Between Kindergarten and Elementary School)
and sort out them into the above two approaches.
Looking back on past, nobody treated early
childhood education in Japan as the theme of the
education policies. Even in the post-war
educational system reform, the government
positioned early childhood education as a
supporting role of the education policies. The
situation was clearly shown by the explanation of
the bill proposed by Minister of Education
Seiichiro Takahashi in the enactment of the
School Education Law (1947). Takahashi insisted
the four points as the main reasons for the
educational system reform, which based on the
implementation of the bill of the School Education
Law: "the equal opportunity of education", "the
spread and improvement of the general education,
and the abolishment of sex discrimination", "the
simplification of the educational system", and "the
development of the academic culture". In all
points, Takahashi showed the significance of
6-3-3-4 schooling system (elementary school,
junior high school, high school, and university),
but did not mention kindergarten.
Therefore, kindergarten education in post-war
started in the situation that it was not compulsory
education as well as general education. Although
Article 1 of the School Education Law defines
kindergarten as "school", early childhood
education has been recognized as supplemental
education. So the matters related to early
childhood education have never been discussed
extensively as a policy subject of the regulations
for public education, the finance, and the
administration. It is true that this situation
created the independence and the creativity of the
practice of early childhood education. But
whether early childhood education established in
general education has been left as the significant
post-war challenge.
The school system reform of the school system
took a point for approaching the issue. In July
1971, the report of Central Council for Education:
"Basic Measures for Comprehensive Expansion
and Adjustment in School Education in the
Future" suggested that childhood school’s "the
pioneering attempt" seamlessly educated children
from aged 4 or 5 to in the lower grades of
elementary school, was entitled as "Development
of the school system according to the developing
process of human". However, the council decided
that the aim of the childhood school was
"reconsideration of the beginning of schooling"
and "consideration of the potential that the
development of talents with early education. As a
result, the educators gave a lot of negative
opinions about the attempt. The Ministry of
Education did not embody the concept of the early
childhood schooling and drive forward the
kindergarten education promotion measures
which were described in the report of Central
Council, in the Kindergarten Education
Promotion Plan (second) in August of the same
year. In response to this promotion policy, the
government started a research on the relationship
between kindergartens and lower grades of the
elementary school in the curriculum, the systems,
the organizations, and the governance.
In the long run, the policy of the Connecting
Curriculum Between Kindergarten and
Elementary School in recent years was a
continuation of the school system reform plan in
1971. However, it is also a fact that the Connecting
Curriculum Between Kindergarten and
Elementary School became the subject of
educational reform since the 2000s, while the
globalization had progressed and the transition to
the post-industrial society had accelerated the
international competition in education. In this
chapter, I focus on and examine this new
situation.
In the following discussion, firstly I will describe
the main policy issues of the Connecting
Curriculum Between Kindergarten and
Elementary School from the late 1980s to 1990s,
and secondly, identify the content and the
characteristics of the policy in the two approaches
since the 2000s. Lastly, I will discuss the concept
of a curriculum "The smooth way of connection
between early childhood education and
elementary school education (report)" (November
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3 © 2019 London Journals Press Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
The Trends and the Issues of the Connecting Curriculum in Japan
2010) that made comprehensive proposals based
on the reforms with the two approaches.
1. The establishment of the subject of living
environment studies and the concept of "base
of learning."
The collaboration of kindergarten and elementary
school have been done experimentally before the
WW2, but when the course of studyrevised in
1989. It requested that the relationship between
schools should have been further strengthened
through the curricula. For the first time, the
Curriculum Council discussed on the kindergarten
curricula together with elementary school, junior
high school, and high school curricula, and aimed
to realize “the content of the education with
harmony and unity." At that time, the rate of
5-year-old children who enter kindergartens was
94% including those who received education by
the kindergarten education at the nursery schools,
and of high school was also 94%. Therefore, it was
necessary to establish the “consistency of
educational content” from kindergarten to high
school.
The establishment of the living environment
studies at that time, although partially, had the
meaning to ensure the connection between
kindergarten and elementary school in the
curricula. According to Shigeto Nakano who was
involved in the establishment of the living
environment studies as the subject survey officer
of Elementary and Secondary Education Bureau
in Ministry of Education, instead of thinking
about kindergartens and elementary schools
separately as before, Central Council for
Education considered restructuring of subjects
with focusing on “connection and development” of
“kindergartens to elementary schools”.
The living environment studies was born as a
subject that focused on the direct experience and
the comprehensive instruction in consideration of
the kindergarten education, on the premise the
developmental status of the children at the lower
grades of elementary school who had undiffe
-rentiated thoughts and feelings.
On the other hand, the Revision of the
Kindergarten Instruction Procedure (same year)
focused on reinstating the uniqueness of early
childhood education with new expressions, rather
than connecting with elementary school. In the
Revision of the Kindergarten Instruction
Procedure, "play" was clearly described as
"important learning to cultivate the basic of
development," the foundation was laid to link
"play" to "learning" as the experience of young
children. But the points that the early childhood
educators involved in the revisions argued was the
ideas of the new “education through the
environment” and “general guidance through
play.” It was emphasized to perfectly pursue the
concepts as a fundamental and to break away
from the education that taught the areas as just a
subject, and that preempted the contents of
elementary schools.
Bringing early childhood education closer to the
connection between kindergarten and elementary
school is the education policy that seeks to foster
Zest for living in the mid-1990s. The report from
Central Council for Education "The way of
education of our country, with the view of the 21st
century (the first)" (July 1996) pointed out "the
decline of the educational abilities" in the; homes
and the community, the pressure on children, the
lack of sociality, the decline of physical strength,
and advocated the; development of the proactive
problem-solving abilities, the enriched
humanness, and Zest for living that represents a
sound body. In addition, the report from Central
Council for Education defined "healthy mind and
body, desirable habits and attitudes in social life,
spontaneity, motivation, rich emotions, interest
and concerns in things, powers of expression" that
are raised in kindergartens as "basis of learning"
after elementary school, and hoped that early
childhood education would improve the education
of Zest for living. Zest for a living meant the
abilities to be directly linked to independence and
personality rather than knowledge and skills and
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united with the education that children learn and
think independently rather than that teaches
them unilaterally. In that respect, it can be
considered that the study of Zest for a living had
an assured affinity with early childhood
education. It was natural to positively find the
significance of early childhood education in the
formation of “the basis of learning,” and the
consciousness of the connection of kindergarten
and elementary school was rising.
Even so, the concept of “the basis of learning” was
carefully discussed so as not to spoil the
characteristics of early childhood education. In
the Ministry of Education's report "The future way
of kindergarten education corresponding to the
change of the times" (November 1997), “the part
that forms the basis of kindergarten education”
was linked to “the foundation of learning” after
elementary school, and constituted “the
foundation of connection” between kindergarten
and elementary school. Six issues were mentioned
in the content of "the basis of learning": will and
confidence to work on actively and positively,
notice from experiences, various expressions of
thoughts and emotions, dealing with fellowship,
involvement in symbols, and understanding and
using the language in conversation. These
contents of six issues were not in derogation from
the Kindergarten Instruction Procedure and the
interpretation on that. This report emphasized
that the consistent education in elementary
schools was also based on the kindergarten's
“comprehensive teaching centered on the
independent play.”
A curriculum that made consideration of the
connection to elementary schools became the
assumption of early childhood education, and an
important policy issue, combined with the
resurfacing plan of school system reform. In 1998,
the Curriculum Council Report (same year),
which was prepared for the revision of the
Revision of the Kindergarten Instruction
Procedure required that the kindergarten
education should be responsible for “fostering the
foundation of life and learning after elementary
school”, and referred to the cooperation with the
elementary schools which paid attention for the
relation with living environment studies. In
December 1999, the Central Council for Education
Report states that: "Improvement of the
connection between primary and secondary
education and higher education” argued that it
was necessary to strengthen the cooperation
between each school level, because of the
acceleration of the children's development of
bodies and minds, the independent life, the delay
in self-directed career choice, and the change of
the industrial structure as the society matured.
This report required that, based on the
recommendations of the school system’s
development in the 1971 statement, the practical
researches of the way of the constancy of the early
childhood education and the lower grade of the
elementary school curriculum, further
establishment of systematics, and cooperation
and connection.
As mentioned above, the School System Reform
Approach appeared earlier than the First Grade
Problem Preventive Approach. In terms of what is
"the basis of learning" (education content) and
what kind of instruction (education method), the
School System Reform Approach connote the
tension that it should have maintained the
characteristics of kindergarten and elementary
school, and also find their harmony.
2. First Grade Problem Preventive Approach
(1) The argument of the First Grade Problem
and the practice of the connecting between
kindergarten and elementary school
Through the disputes that drove distrust in school
education, the First Grade Problems caused the
new contexts in which the curriculum policy of
Connecting Curriculum Between Preschool and
Elementary School worked, apart from the
backgrounds of the school system reform. First,
let's look back at the main arguments regarding
the First Grade Problem.
At first, the First Grade Problem was regarded as
a phenomenon in which the class disruption that
occurred in the upper grades reached the lower
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age. But the problem became to be emphasized in
connection with early childhood development and
education. Naoki Ogi considered that the class
disruption was the breakdown of the Class
Kingdom of the elementary schools, referred to
Non-interference Nursery as a factor that caused
the class disruptions of the first-grade children to
"all over the country." Similarly, the arguments of
claiming that reproduction of the First Grade
Problem thereafter causes the early childhood
education which focuses on the free activities and
the personalities of infants . Shinbo Makiko
argued that the First Grade Problem was "a
problem caused by children who were tied to their
early childhood," and “‘a state of an unformed
class that did not form a group, not a class
‘disruption.’" She listed the four points as the
background of the problem: 1. Changes in society
surrounding children, 2.Changes, and isolation of
parents in parenting, 3.Expansion of the gap
between the preschool education which in process
of change and the school education which
unchanged, and 4.Self-abortion preschool
education and school education without
collaboration.
Confronted with the doubts and the criticisms for
the early childhood education, the early childhood
educators pointed out that the “gap” expanded
between kindergarten and primary school
education systems, and the lack of collaboration
between teachers was matter. In kindergartens,
the children's play as self-motivated activities
regarded important, and the teachers prepare the
necessary environment based on their interests
and concerns. But, in elementary schools, the
children's learning and life are organized
uniformly by timetables, textbooks, and
teacher-led teaching. In the methods and contents
of education, the changes that accompany the
transition from early childhood education to
elementary school education, the learning
environment, and the codes of behavior were
considered to be "gap." There were many people,
including Takashi Muto who treated that the large
“gap” made children’s confused was a factor of the
First Grade Problem. Fukada Shozo showed that it
took from several months to a year for new pupils
to adapt to the life of the elementary schools, and
they got severe stress during that time.
Regarding the lack of collaboration between the
kindergarten and elementary school teachers,
Hiroko Sasaki and fellows saw as problems that
kindergarten teachers who were indifferent to the
elementary school education after the children
enter the school, and the elementary school
teachers who "ignored" children's educational
history, development, and individuality, and
forced them in "single frame". The First Grade
Problem was concluded that “the confusion and
the puzzle of children who fell in the gap” of the
broken relationship between kindergarten and
elementary school. The final report "The current
situation of class management problems and their
response" (March 2000) of the class management
study group, which was delegated by the Ministry
of Education, also dealt with “the cases of lack of
cooperation and cooperation with preschool
education” as one of "a situation where the class
does not work well". The Research Council for
study on for Future Kindergarten Education in
Response to Changing Times (1997) also referred
children’s anxiety accompanying the transition
from kindergarten to elementary school.
The opinion was that it was necessary to remove
anxiety and gave a sense of security, as both
children and parents felt uneasy about "studying"
and "friends" in elementary school. But at that
time, the anxiety in transition was just considered
to be a general trend. The report of Research
Council for study on for Future Kindergarten
Education in Response to Changing Times in 1997
showed the view that “the last half of kindergarten
older class to the first semester of first-grade
elementary school” was considered as a period of
transition. But the proposal for connection only
referred to the promotion of mutual
understanding between kindergarten and
elementary school.
Since the appearance of the First Grade Problem,
the interest in connection had been directed not
only to the consistency of the contents of
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education but also to the pragmatic exchange and
collaboration between kindergartens and
elementary schools in daily educational activities.
In February 2001, the Survey and Research
Co-workers Meeting on Promotion of Early
Childhood Education’s report: "Toward the
enhancement of early childhood education
-Toward the formulation of early childhood
education promotion program" pointed out that
there was a lack of opportunities and mutual
understanding for the cooperation and exchange
between kindergartens and elementary schools,
and it advocated "promoting exchanges between
teachers, children and parents" as the measure to
prevent the problems. The concrete matters
were:among teachers, “daily information
interchange and continuous exchange” through
regular meetings and joint in-school training,
rather than a one-day training, among children,
“joint events including athletic meet, school play,
and excursion”, “joint activities including open
space of each garden and joint lunch”, “mutual
participation in childcare and classes including
involvement of early childhood in the class of
living environment studies and integrated studies
period, among the parents", “joint parents'
association, lectures and symposia”, “joint
events”, and “PTA activities”. The report also
showed the reciprocity of collaboration, in which
these exchanges do not benefit just one, but
provide opportunities for both to learn and grow.
In the First Grade Problem Preventive Approach,
the obviousness and the urgency to practice
collaboration for the education sites became the
driving forces of the Connecting Curriculum
Between Preschool and Elementary School.
(2) Formation of start curriculum
Within the First Grade Problems, the curriculum
reform focusing on elementary school education
rather than kindergarten education. The report of
Central Council for Education “Improvement of
the course of study for kindergartens, elementary
schools, junior high schools, high schools and
special needs schools” in January 2008 pointed
out that the problem of children, including
"weakening of self-control and sense of norms and
inadequate establishment of lifestyles", as a factor
of the First Grade Problem. And the report argued
"adaptation" to elementary school life as an issue.
The main improvement matters of the educational
contents based on this report are as follows for
kindergarten and elementary school.
First of all, in early childhood education, it was a
matter of improvement to establish collaboration
between kindergarten and elementary school,
focusing on the exchange opportunities between
them. The new Kindergarten Instruction
Procedure showed the setting of opportunities for
“exchange of children between kindergarten and
elementary school” and “exchanging of views, and
joint research” with elementary school teachers.
And the new Kindergarten Education Guidelines
also referred to continuity and planning for
meaningful exchanges. But the term of "the First
Grade Problem" didn’t appear in the new
Kindergarten Instruction Procedure, and the
guideline just referred that as there was a
substantia change in their lives, "children may not
be able to adapt well to the changes in their lives".
It was the elementary schools that recognized the
problem of the first grade to adapt to elementary
school problem to the primary schools as a severe
problem of arranging a curriculum. The report
especially referred to living environment studies
and certain activities about the First Grade
Problem and difficulties in adjusting to school.
This report pointed out that "adaptation to school
life" was a matter in living environment studies
and "adaptation to a group" in special activities.
In addition, the report listed the following as
specific matters for curriculum improvement for
living environment studies: the composition of the
unit centered on the living environment studies at
the beginning of entering, the further
enhancement of the teaching which was jointed
and related to other subjects and living
environment studies, and kindergarten and school
children's joint learning activities, and the
exchange of teachers. The specific matters for
curriculum improvement for special exercises
were an effective adoption of activities to learn
social skills that build relationships. The term of
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the First Grade Problem which was not used in
the guidelines of the new Kindergarten Education
procedure, repeatedly appeared in the new
Courses of Study of living environment studies
and special activities (4 times for life course, nine
times for special excersises). That represented a
sense of urgency on the elementary school side.
The point to be noted in this revision is that the
improvement measures are proposed that regard
the curriculum at the beginning of the first-grade
year as a Start curriculum, to promote adaptation
to schools and prevent the First Grade Problem.
According to the part of living environment
studies of the Elementary School Course of Study
Guidelines, in the first unit of April, Start
Curriculum forms a large unit that is
comprehensively teaching the contents of the
Japanese language, music, and drawing work,
centering on the learning activities of living
environment studies to explore the school sites.
And the comprehensively teaching is organized to
be gradually divided into each subject. By creating
a large unit, it was considered that “it would be
possible for children to carry out activities for
realizing their thoughts and wishes in a relaxed
time.”
Start Curriculum actively incorporated the
method of learning that was comprehensive on
the extension of the early childhood education,
and flexible allocation of activity time not tied to
timetables, into the curriculum of the elementary
school education. In other words, it was an
attempt which partially reduce the “gap” between
kindergarten and elementary school education
systems. The Start Curriculum presented the
model of Connecting Curriculum Between
Preschool and Elementary School, but it brought
about the change in the meaning of the practice of
living environment studies at the same time.
According to Tadahiko Inagaki, history of
remodeling class established licing environment
studies and it was designed for practicing
replacing the traditional subject-centered classes,
through the selection of distinctive tasks by
teachers, the re-question of class goals, and the
development and understanding of children and
progressing of independent activities. However,
Start Curriculum expected living environment
studies to have a function of linking the jointed
class to the specialized classes, rather than of
reviewing. Also, Start Curriculum aimed at the
methods with a limited goal of adaptation to
school life rather than creative methods by
teachers and children. In later, the Start
Curriculum was criticized that “it has not yet free
from the long instruction of adaptation,” and did
not change the way of learning in the lower grade
of elementary school. These criticisms would
represent that the practice of living environment
studies had been temporarily replaced with
adaptation instruction with the introduction of
the Start Curriculum.
3. School System Reform Approach
(1) The characteristic as the national strategy
About the whole curriculum policy, the
government reviewed Yutori education (more
relaxed education policy) in the 2000s, and the
development of “certain academic ability” was
emphasized. With the background of the
argument of the decline in academic ability,
MEXT launched the enhancement of “mind
education” and the improvement of “certain
academic ability” in the Recommendation of
Learning in 2002. According to the report of
Central Council for Education "Measures to
enrich and improve the present curriculum and
instruction in primary and secondary education"
in October 2003, "certain academic ability"
included from "knowledge and skills" to "ability of
thinking, judging, and expressing", and
emphasized "willingness to learn". There was also
a view that "certain academic ability" was an
aspect of knowledge of Zest for living in the
report.
Therefore, the early childhood education, which
had emphasized significance in the formation of
the “basis of learning” that fosters Zest for living,
could no longer ignore "academic ability" and its
policies. Also, early childhood education was
forced to adapt to the trends of the international
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models of academic ability. The revision of the
course of study in 2008 particularly emphasized
the importance of the education of Zest for living
in 'knowledge-based society' in the 21st century.
At the same time, Zest for a living was interpreted
directly to the “key competency” framework of
academic concept in the PISA survey of OECD.
Manabu Sato referred that educational reforms,
including academic policy in recent years, had
become internationally competitive due to
nationalism from globalization, and been
promoted as a national strategy. The report of
Central Council for Education "Creating
compulsory education in a new age" in October
2005 advocated that it was "the age of change,"
"the age of confusion," and "the age of
international competition." So the nation needed
to "strive to realize the world's highest level of
compulsory education as a national strategy.” A
system to improve the coordination and the
connection between schools at each stage focusing
on compulsory education, including the flexible
curriculum, is an essential issue to consider.
Following these movements, the School System
Reform Approach to Connecting Curriculum
Between Preschool and Elementary School began
to show its character as a national strategy. In
2003, Central Council for Education set up Early
Childhood Education Committee under the
Primary and Secondary Education Division, to
identify "the way of early childhood education as
what is connected to a compulsory education
system" in the process of discussion. Because of
this process, as Mioka Torii pointed out, the
problem of early childhood education was
positioned as a reform of the entire compulsory
education system, as a part of "realization the
world's highest level of compulsory education as a
national strategy." Furthermore, as the intention
of the MEXT secretariat, they chose not to
immediately start the development of a consistent
school system between kindergartens and
elementary schools, but to adopt a policy to
promote the development of early childhood
education centered on the Connecting Curriculum
Between Kindergarten and Elementary School.
Next, I would like to identify how the curriculum
reform of the connection between kindergarten
and elementary school had progressed based on
the report of Central Council for Education. The
report stated that "The way of early childhood
education based on the change in the
environment surrounding children-Thinking
about early childhood education for the best
benefit of children-" (January 2005, hereinafter
referred to as the Way of Early Childhood
Education report), which summarized the
discussion at that time.
(2)” The beginning of school education" and
reinforcement of promoting curricula
The Way of Early Childhood Education report
mentioned the direction of the reform of
Connecting Curriculum Between Preschool and
Elementary School. Firstly, relocating the early
childhood education as "the beginning of school
education" and ensure the connection with
compulsory education with revising the law.
Secondly, making the promotion of early
childhood connection curriculum pervade to the
education scenes. Thirdly, introducing the
concept of "collaborative learning" that links early
childhood and childhood education.
These three policies are all based on the idea of
“the continuity of development and learning.” In
the report, “the continuity of development and
learning” was the idea of linking the educational
functions of homes, communities, and
kindergarten facilities, and connecting the
education systems by passing on the results to
elementary schools. At the same time, as a
principle to promote the system development of
early childhood education for that purpose, it was
also mentioned as a principle that emphasizes the
connection of education of infants, early children,
and children. “The continuity of development and
learning” appeared in the report as the concept to
restructure the early childhood education and
promote the connection between kindergarten
and elementary school.
I will describe the specific contents of the three
policies below. The first policy of positioning early
"
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childhood education as the beginning of
schooling” aimed at further clarifying the
relationship the educational content of between
early childhood education and compulsory
education. Early childhood education is expected
as the function of fostering the foundation of Zest
for living, that consists of “certain academic
abilities” including “knowledge, skill, thinking,
judgment, and expression," “ rich humanity,” and
“health and physical strength ”for living healthily.
This report also proposed the review of Article 1 of
the School Education Law, which placed
kindergartens at the end of school types, to legally
clarify the connections in educational contents.
The fact that early childhood education is the
“beginning of school education”, meaning that is
linked to compulsory education in series. In line
with the proposal, Article 1 of the new School
Education Law (revised in 2007) was changed to
"In this law, schools means kindergartens,
elementary schools, junior high schools ..." In
Article 22, the new provision “Kindergartens
foster the basics of compulsory education and
subsequent education” was added to the purpose
of kindergartens. About the revision of the School
Education Act, some people worried that the goals
and content of compulsory education linked to
national norms and strategies. The worry became
not to overlook it in the curriculum for early
childhood education.
Next, the background of the second policy to
spread Connecting Curriculum Between Preschool
and Elementary School to the academic scenes
required the enhancement of collaboration in the
country, local public organizations, and
educational sites, with formulating the Action
Program for Promoting Early Childhood
Education. This program showed the following
matters to the country and the local public
organizations as an effective and efficient measure
that the report of “The way of early childhood
education” sought. The country needs to consider
revising the Kindergarten Instruction Procedure
that more enhances the teaching to cultivate the
basis of living and learning after elementary
school, in kindergarten. The local public
organizations need to support the development of
the model curricula so that the kindergartens can
create and implement the curricula and the
teaching plans that take into consideration the
transition to elementary school education. It has
been pointed out that the reason why the
collaboration of kindergarten and elementary
school did not spread and establish is that there
are differences in ideas among the areas and the
school boards, between kindergartens and nursery
schools, between public and private schools, and
that it is difficult for the whole elementary school
to work with. The Action Program for Promoting
Early Childhood Education attempted to improve
these situations and pushed forward with the
creation of the connecting curriculum in the
education site under the direction of the Board of
Education.
As part of that, the issue of “collaboration with
elementary schools regarding the formation of the
curriculum” was added to the survey on early
childhood education by MEXT since 2008.
Among the kindergartens who answered that
there was the exchange between the kindergartens
and the elementary schools (77.6% of the total),
the kindergartens that had organized curriculum
in cooperation with the elementary schools were
21.8% in 2008, 34.0% in 2010, 49.3% in 2012.
Although not clearly stated in this program, it can
be said that organizing a curriculum in
cooperation between kindergartens and elem-
entary schools are considered to be one of the
goals to be achieved in the educational scenes.
The Board of Education has also expanded the
movement toward formulating a model
curriculum for the connection between
kindergartens and elementary schools, and the
instruction of the exchange and the collaboration
between kindergartens and primary schools for
the educational scenes. Although curricula are
made based on the autonomy of teachers in
kindergartens and schools, on the other hand,
there was a tendency that the administration
imposed the curricula on the educational scenes
as an action goal.
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(3) Introduction of Collaborative Learning
The reason that the third policy asking for the
introduction of Collaborative Learning is, it was
advocated in need of particularly showing the
teaching to cultivate “the basis of learning” in
early childhood education. Mainly targeted at
5-year-old children before entering elementary
school, the Way of Early Childhood Education
report defined that "the activity that each child
sets a goal such as common destinations and
challenging issues, with teacher's help, and solves
them with cooperating and devising" was
collaborative learning. Furthermore, the report
called for consideration of "the flow of education"
from "activities in line with interests" to "learning
using interests" and "learning focusing on
subjects." As reference material for organizing
and implementing Connecting Curriculum
Between Preschool and Elementary School,
“Education from early childhood to childhood”
(February 2005) was published by the Curriculum
Research Center of the National Institute for
Educational Policy Research. In this book,
Collaborative Learning had the following three
features.
First, Collaborative Learning rationally explained
the relationship and continuity of the
kindergarten and elementary school educations,
as a basic concept to connect the two curricula.
The Collaborative Learning in early childhood was
considered to constitute “the basis of learning” of
the elementary school in the sense of “being taken
over by the elementary school and developing into
the class activities centered on classes.”
Furthermore, beyond the difference between
kindergarten and elementary school education,
the basis for the continuity of education was
clarified from the viewpoint that the experience of
sharing and collaborating goals should have
emphasized on both sides. There have been a
variety of early childhood experiences that
become “the basis of learning” in elementary
schools. Collaborative Learning integrates these
experiences and clearly shows the direction in
which early childhood education aims. Also in the
curriculum for early childhood education, not
only the exchange activities of kindergartens and
elementary schools which placed in one-time and
local space were given but also the intention to
consider the connection in the whole education
plan occurred.
Collaborative Learning went out of the realm of
living environment studies which mentioned the
commonality with early childhood education, and
suggested a change in the way of learning in
elementary school education. As in early
childhood, the emphasis on experiences and the
comprehensive activities had been limitedly
introduced mainly in the living environment
studies in primary schools. The book pointed out
that the introduction of living environment
studies and integrated studies would increase the
experiential learning, which children find and
search for their issues, and develop "the
independent learning method such as checking by
themselves or going about with consulting with
their friends”, that is not a one-way lesson of the
teacher even in the subject learning. In future
kindergartens and elementary schools, “finding
and working on their issues” and “developing
learning in cooperation with friends” will be the
ways of the learning that should be important as
well. The apparent difference between play and
subject learning was clear, but Collaborative
Learning gave a perspective on the continuity of
study, which was not bound by the framework of
subjects.
Second, Collaborative Learning restructured, with
the principle of cooperation and learning, the
curriculum of early childhood education
organized on the principle of spontaneity and
play, and resented the reorganization of early
childhood experiences. The book divided the flow
of development from early childhood to childhood
into three dominant periods and represented the
features of each period with nineteen practices.
The three periods of progress are described: the
case of three and four years old children in "the
period to meet various environments in the first
corrective life”, the case of four and five years in
“the period when their plays enriched and they
demonstrate themselves”, and the case of a
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five-year-old in "the period when their human
relationships deepen and they can learn together."
Through the variety of circumstances, the book
expressed the developmental aspects that the ego
emerges and starts to be aware of the others,
becomes able to adjust the behavior through the
exchange of conflict thought of friendship, the
process of giving interest and attention to an
object, and realizing the new aspects and
relationships, and broadening and deepening
understanding, and the process of earning that
creates new ways of involvement.
As mentioned above, Collaborative Learning
transferred the principles of the formation of early
childhood education curriculum, from
spontaneity and play to cooperation and learning.
However, the two principals were not in
opposition but mutual and co-existing
relationships. The self-motivation of early
childhood developed into cooperativity as "higher
quality." It was considered that “spontaneity rises
where cooperativity grew,” learning arises in play
and life, and study would further enhance play
and life. The principles of cooperativity and
learning in Collaborative Learning had the
potential to hand over the results to primary
education while maintaining the characteristics of
early childhood education.
Third, Collaborative Learning emphasized
"listening and communicating." The book showed
the process of which communication changes
from "body expression" to "verbal expression"
through trusting in others, acquiring words,
rebuilding and interacting with verbal
experiences, and listening to the other person's
opinions with focusing.
Speaking of early childhood education that
emphasizes verbal dialogue, there is
Communicating Childcare and the Reggio
approach. "Communicating" of Communicating
Childcare, argued around the Childcare Problem
Research Group in the 1960s, was a method of
proactively finding objective facts and aiming at
foster awareness. The dialogue of the Reggio
approach aims at a structure in which the children
find the meaning of the object in the way of
exploration integrated with the activities of
creative art. Collaborative Learning was proposed
on the assumption of the activities of the project
represented by the Reggio approach. However,
“listening and communicating” in “education from
early childhood to childhood” emphasizes the
skills in the formation of listening attitude and
communication, rather than the dialogue open to
the construction in the various meanings. It
differs from the Reggio approach in that respect.
Collaborative Learning was initially attracted
attention as the idea of connecting kindergartens
and elementary schools, but it became instability
as an idea of early childhood education soon. At
the Kindergarten Education Specialty Group of
Curriculum Group of Central Council for
Education, held in preparation for the revision of
the Kindergarten Instruction Procedure in 2008,
there were a series of opinions that the term
Collaborative Learning should have been avoided.
They pointed out the following problems: the
educational methods in which formal group
formation was carried out in attempting to
practice for Collaborative Learning, the education
content associating with area was difficult, and
the misunderstanding of treating “studying-like"
learning as "sharing and learning." As a result, the
new Kindergarten Instruction Procedure did not
hold the term of "Collaborative Learning", but
instead had the expression of "playing
cooperatively." And the matter about "playing
cooperatively" was described in "content
handling" in the area of "human relationships,"
and as a social experience rather than a cognitive
experience of learning. In the tense relationship
between the connection between kindergartens
and elementary schools, and the uniqueness of
early childhood education, Collaborative Learning
faces a conflict between child-centered and
teacher-centered, area and subject, play and
learning, and is receding at least as a curriculum
term.
4. The current situation of Connecting Curriculum
Between Preschool and Elementary School policy
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The policy of Connecting Curriculum Between
Preschool and Elementary School has been
promoted with backlogs, with the School System
Reform Approach in the mainstream, and the
First Grade Problem Preventive Approach. The
report "A smooth connection between early
childhood and elementary school education" of
MEXT in November 2010 designed a future
curriculum based on the examination and practice
in both approaches.
The report referred to the First Grade Problem
and also showed the notes of Start Curriculum.
But the core of the report was theorizing of a
curriculum to organize and explain kindergarten
and elementary school education continuity and
consistently. The report aimed to build a system
of Connecting Curriculum Between Preschool and
Elementary School, based on certain principles
and concepts. Then, what was presented is the
“three-tiered structure,” which is developed by
“the purpose and goal of education" →
"curriculum” → “educational activities.” In "the
purpose and goals of education", the contents on
purpose and the goals of kindergartens and
elementary schools in the Fundamental Law of
Education and the School Education Law were
cross-checked, and the concept of "fostering basic
skills for learning," which represents the common
goals to both parties was presented. As follows, I
would like to describe two points that I noticed.
The Curriculum clearly states the importantance
of cultivating “the three independence” in early
childhood and childhood, and “the three elements
of academic abilities” after childhood for
“fostering Basis of Learning.” “The three
independences” in early childhood were the just
same words in living environment studies
(“independence in learning.” “independence in
life,” “mental independence”) to express the
commonality between early childhood and lower
grades in elementary school. “The three elements
of academic abilities" are the "life-long learning
basis" defined in Article 30 of the School
Education Law: “basic knowledge and skills,”
“thinking, judgment, and expressive ability to
solve problems,” and “independent attitude to
engage in learning.” “The three independences” in
early childhood is thought that it would gradually
lead to “the three independence” and the “the
three elements of academic abilities” in childhood.
However, as far as I know there is no argument
that explains the connection from “the three
independence” to “the three elements of academic
abilities” in elementary school education. For
example, looking at the whole course of study and
its guideline on the relation to life course, the
contents of “independence of learning” has the
descriptions related to the methods of learning
and acquiring knowledge and skills of the subjects
in the Japanese language, society, and science. On
the other hand, the contents of "individual
independence in life" and "mind-independence"
are described as moral in living environment
studies. “The three independences" through
integrated learning in the living environment
studies are broken up in the transition to learning
in the subject. In particular, the relationship with
“independence in life” and “mind-independence”
is excluded from subject learning. An explanation
of how "the three independences" in early
childhood to lower grades is developed in the
subsequent education remains as a future issue.
In “educational activities,” direct and specific
relationships with subjects are considered in the
two areas, “relation with people” and “relation
with things.” "Relation with people" is a relation
with oneself, another person, or a group, and
"relation with things" is with nature and things
around them. The educational activities from “the
beginning of learning” (early childhood) to
“awareness learning” (childhood) develop into
learning during play and for each subject, taking
into consideration the relationship with the two
areas.
The main contents of the activities that
systematically address teaching in each area are as
follows. “Relation with people” deals with social
experiences that create cooperative relationships
with others. The exercises are that exchange and
adjust ideas and feel a sense of accomplishment
together at the end of early childhood, and aim to
"form group codes" in the elementary school
lower grades. “Relation with things” deals with
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cognitive experiences mediated through nature,
things, and tools. At the end of early childhood,
“relation with things” is an activity that children
solve problems with combining laws, words,
letters, and quantitative relations acquired in life
and experience, and use them according to the
situations. In the lower grades of elementary
school, “relation with things” is an activity to
foster essential skills and practical understanding
of Japanese language, quantity, and natural
events through the teaching of each subject,
“expressing and appreciating ability” through
sound, “creative and conceptual ability” through
natural objects and artifacts.
Although the term of Collaborative Learning was
not in usage, learning from early childhood to
childhood was again planed based on the
principle of collaboration. What differs from one
used to be is that, it focuses on the role of “words”
and “expressions” that support the direct and
specific relationship with objects. In other words,
the report focused on "words" and "expressions"
passing through relations with people and things
rather than the acquired knowledge and skills of
"words" and "expressions." And the exploratory
experience of "deep awareness and thinking"
through "words" and "expressions" was
positioned as a learning experience. Referring to
"relation with people" and "relation with things"
activities, for example, although the content of
group norms, abilities, and knowledge itself are
also essential, we should consider putting the way
to set up an experience of learning how to
understand others and objects in the process of
exploring matters, into the curriculum plan.
II. CONCLUSION
In this paper, I have sorted out the characteristics
and the issues of the curriculum policies in recent
years, focusing on the two approaches, the School
System Reform Approach and the First Grade
Problem Preventive Approach that designs
Connecting Curriculum Between Preschool and
Elementary School. These have explored the
possibility of rethinking early childhood education
as regular education, but the process has had
some problems. In the School System Reform
Approach, the early childhood education which
had the conflict between asking connection and
securing of originality was pushed back by the
compulsory education reform as a national
strategy, and promoted the development of
Connecting Curriculum Between Preschool and
Elementary School based on the concept of“the
basis of learning.” As a result, we saw the problem
of the influence of the governmental control that
directly linked to the compulsory education, the
high demand for the educational scenes to
introduce the connecting curriculum and the
reorganization of the early childhood education by
"collaborative learning" and its commotion. In the
First Grade Problem Preventive Approach, the
practicing of the collaboration of kindergarten
and elementary school progressed, and Start
Curriculum was proposed for children’s
adaptation to elementary schools. But the practice
of living environment studies is trivializing. And
now, Japan aims at the construction of the system
of Connecting Curriculum Between Preschool and
Elementary School. While including the
misunderstanding and cooperative learning
started over, there are various proposes of the
concepts of the connection. Looking back on the
history of the early childhood education, since the
no kindergarten argument in Meiji period, the
Japanese kindergarten has the trauma that they
were criticized for the teaching knowledge
unilaterally like the elementary schools. And the
country found uniqueness in the spontaneity,
play, and life of early childhood education. Then it
leads the country here. The reform of Connecting
Curriculum Between Preschool and Elementary
School demands a review of the ideas, principles,
theories, and practices of early childhood
education. However, in the process of the policies
of the two approaches, the issue of how to
consider future school education through the
connection between kindergarten and elementary
school may not have been sufficiently discussed.
In early childhood education, it would need to
find and reflect the possibilities and opportunities
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for the early childhood education to the position
in the general education on the connection
between kindergarten and elementary school,
rather than asking whether it is played or
learning, child-centered or teacher-led, emotional
or knowledge. This paper is one of the essays
which has such a view, for the curriculum reform.
“The continuity of development and learning” in
the connection between kindergarten and
elementary school will continue to be emphasized
as the idea to integrate the unique and diverse
practices of early childhood education. However,
it is also necessary to pay attention so that the
advocacy of “the continuity of development and
learning” does not bring about the unnecessary
control of homes and persons who bring up
children.
Although not mentioned because of space
limitations, the issue of the connection between
kindergarten and elementary school is also deeply
related to the integration of kindergarten and
nursery school, the international interest in
investing in infants and early childhood with the
economic growth strategies, and the assurance
and the evaluation of the quality of education. The
policies and the discussions of the connection
between the kindergarten and the elementary
school also need to be organized and considered
from these p
oints of view.
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382U
LJP Copyright ID: 573332Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792
London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
ABSTRACT
Scan to know paper details andauthor's profile
The Role of Opinion Leaders with Reference to Extension work in Luri County, Jubek State,
South Sudan
Jacob K. Lupai
University of Juba
This research is to assess the role of opinion leaders in extension work in relation to farming. The purpose
is to establish the extent opinion leaders encourage agricultural production for the achievement of food
security. This is because opinion leaders are seen as helpful in addressing challenges in the community.
There is satisfaction with opinion leaders that can assist extension workers to deliver and are seen as
important in the provision of extension services to farmers. The result of the research is that opinion
leaders play a role in extension work in Luri County and the main role is in linking extension workers to
farmers. In general, farmers are satisfied with the role of opinion leaders. It is recommended that there
should be more consultation between opinion leaders and extension workers with further research to be
carried out to establish the extent to which the role of opinion leaders in extension work is effective in
increasing yields for self-reliance in food production.
Keywords: opinion leaders, extension worker, farmers, community, food security, poverty.
Classification: For Code:
Language: English
360199
© 2019. Jacob K. Lupai. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The Role of Opinion Leaders with Reference to Extension work in Luri County, Jubek State,
South Sudan Jacob K. Lupai
ABSTRACT This research is to assess the role of opinion
leaders in extension work in relation to farming.
The purpose is to establish the extent opinion
leaders encourage agricultural production for
the achievement of food security. This is because
opinion leaders are seen as helpful in addressing
challenges in the community. There is
satisfaction with opinion leaders that can assist
extension workers to deliver and are seen as
important in the provision of extension services
to farmers. The result of the research is that
opinion leaders play a role in extension work in
Luri County and the main role is in linking
extension workers to farmers. In general,
farmers are satisfied with the role of opinion
leaders. It is recommended that there should be
more consultation between opinion leaders and
extension workers with further research to be
carried out to establish the extent to which the
role of opinion leaders in extension work is
effective in increasing yields for self-reliance in
food production.
Keywords: opinion leaders, extension worker,
farmers, community, food security, poverty.
I. INTRODUCTION
This research paper covers the role of opinion
leaders and extension work in Luri County in
Jubek State, South Sudan. It is on the extent of
how opinion leaders are linking farmers to
extension workers in order for farmers to adopt
innovations that increase production to achieve
food security.
Opinion leaders are members of the social system
in which they exert their influence and when
compared with their followers, opinion leaders are
more exposed to all forms of external
communication, are more cosmopolite, have to
some extent higher social status, and are more
innovative (Rogers, 10983). On the other hand,
extension work is seen as the public provision of
agricultural advice and support to farmers
(Howell, 1986, pp.213 – 218). Extension is to help
farmers acquire knowledge related to certain
solutions to problems and their consequences so
the farmers can act on possible alternatives (Van
den Ban and Hawkins, 1996). For extension
services, it is the role of the extension worker to
bring about change among farmers (Oakley and
Garforth, 1985). An extension worker seeks out
and encourages people to change their traditional
attitudes towards development and helps them
achieve a better living standard (MacDonald and
Hearle, 1984). However, the challenge is that in
Sub-Saharan Africa extension workers are all too
often sad figures abandoned with little or no
support, infrequently supervised, with no
messages worth passing on to farmers and with
few incentives to get on with the work (Wiggins,
1986, pp.99 – 106). Sub-Saharan Africa is perhaps
the only region of the world that has not
significantly increased productivity of food crops
among its population of small scale farmers and
the reasons given include poor infrastructures and
shortage of skilled personnel (Zaria and Amotayo,
1997, pp.123 – 138).
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17 © 2019 London Journals Press Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
____________________________________________
Author: Associate Professor at the University of Juba
and the Principal of Eboni University College and
Kuajok Community College for Human Resource
Development and Extra-mural Studies, South Sudan.
In any extension organization, there will be only a
small number of trained, professional extension
workers within any region, with responsibility for
thousand of farmers (Oakley and Garforth, 1985).
According to Oakley and Garforth, the solution is
for extension workers to seek out and enlist the
support of local people who have leadership
qualities or influence within the area because such
local people can assume responsibility for certain
activities in the worker’s absence by assisting
directly in the spread of new ideas and practices
by demonstrating them in their fields. This seems
to suggest that opinion leaders can be people with
qualities that will likely help in the spread of
extension messages in dissemination of improved
cultivation methods to farmers to increase
production in the area.
The hypothesis to examine is that opinion leaders
have no role in extension work in Luri County in
Jubek State, South Sudan and the purpose of the
research is to determine the extent of the role of
opinion leaders in extension work.
II. OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH
Some of the objectives of the research are as
follows:
1. To assess the extent opinion leaders are
involved in extension work in Luri County,
2. To establish what main role opinion leaders
play in extension work, and
3. To establish the level of satisfaction of farmers
with opinion leaders.
Research questions
The main research questions are:
1. Do opinion leaders have a role to play in
extension work in Luri County?
2. What do opinion leaders mainly do if they
have a role to play in extension work?
3. How are opinion leaders important in
extension work?
Justification of the research
This research is justified in order to increase
knowledge and understanding of the role opinion
leaders play in extension work. It is with the aim
of development of appropriate strategies in
encouraging opinion leaders to get involved in
extension work for the success of extension
programme. The results of the research and
discussion can serve as a step for further research
in what has not been seen as covered in this
research on the role of opinion leaders in
extension work. In addition, this research is likely
to be helpful in the assessment of the role played
by opinion leaders in development. Finally, this
research is to add knowledge to the existing
literature on opinion leaders with reference to
agricultural development for food security and
reduction of poverty.
III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Various research methods have been used to
collect and analyze data on the role of opinion
leaders in extension work. The selection of the
research area has been made and the criteria of
selection of the area established. The research
methodology includes orientation visits to the
area, semi-structured interviews with key
informants and a questionnaire survey of a
sample of farmers.
Luri County in Jubek State in South Sudan has
been selected as the research area to collect data
on the role of opinion leaders in extension work.
This is because the government is carrying out a
number of demonstration farms in the area and
the surrounding communities consist mainly of
farmers.
A visit was made to the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry, Fisheries and Animal Resources in
Jubek State. The purpose of the visit was to
present the research proposal and to get
permission in order to carry out the research in
Luri County. The research proposal was accepted
with an acknowledgement that it was relevant for
strategic planning of an extension programme.
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The Role of Opinion Leaders with Reference to Extension work in Luri County, Jubek State, South Sudan
A preliminary visit was made to Luri County for
firsthand knowledge of the area. The county
authorities were positive and pledged
cooperation. The research started with interviews
of key informants in the area for primary data.
Thereafter, a questionnaire was administered to a
sample of 50 farmers for their opinions on the
role of opinion leaders in extension work in Luri
County.
Limitations in the research
There were challenges in the field during the
research in Luri County. Some of the challenges
include the following:
1. There was a problem of moving from house to
house and from farm to farm in search of
farmers for the questionnaire survey when
people were not found at the time,
2. Extreme hot days limited movement in the
area, and
3. Respondents wanted to be paid in order to
provide information because of the assumption
that the research was a project to benefit the
local community.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Key informants in Luri County said opinion
leaders were important in extension work. They
concluded that opinion leaders linked extension
with farmers in improving production for
self-reliance. However, it was not clear to what
extent did opinion leaders play a role in extension
work. The results of the questionnaire survey of
the sample of farmers may shed light on the
extent opinion leaders play a role in extension
work among farmers in the area.
When dealing with a sample the interest is in
proportions because it is to estimate the
proportions in the total population (Rowntree,
1981). Numerical data often need to be condensed
into a more suitable form before they are of much
value in a statistical investigation (Bryars, 1983).
Nevertheless, actual figures are necessary for the
precise specification of the frequency of
occurrence of anything and such figures are
obtained from a selected sample (Langley, 1968).
In the questionnaire survey 68 per cent of the
sample is male and 32 per cent female. The result
of the survey shows that there are also female
farmers in Luri County. Like men, women in
Sub-Saharan Africa participate in various
cultivation tasks such as sowing, weeding, clearing
the fields and transporting produce from the
fields (Savane, 1986, pp. 124 – 132). Many women
are farmers in their own right, either because
there is no man living in the family throughout
the year or because women in some societies have
their own land and their own crops for which they
are responsible (Oakley and Garforth, 1985). This
research confirms that there are women who are
also farmers in Luri County which suggests that
their opinions on the role of opinion leaders in
extension work may also count.
The result of the survey by age group shows that
38 per cent are in the age group of 15 – 35 years
old, 44 in 36 – 65 and 18 per cent are over 65
years old. This suggests that the majority of
farmers, 82 per cent, is in the working age group
and seems physically fit in sustaining production
for household food security. Only 18 per cent of
the farmers who are over 65 years old may be too
old to work in the fields with the likely resultant
low productivity.
On marital status, the majority of farmers, 84 per
cent, are married and only 16 per cent are single.
This suggests that the majority of farmers may
have sufficient farm labor as family members are
likely to contribute labor for farm work to increase
production for self-reliance.
The survey on literacy shows that 56 per cent of
the farmers are literate while 44 per cent are
illiterate. This seems to show that by a narrow
margin the majority of farmers are literate.
However, on the national level the majority of
people, 73 per cent, are illiterate and only 23 per
cent are literate (Southern Sudan Centre for
Census, Statistics and Evaluation, 2010). This
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seems to suggest that the literacy rate in Luri
County is above the national average.
Asked whether opinion leaders have a role to play
in extension work, the answer is 100 per cent in
the affirmative. When asked again of what is the
most important role opinion leaders play in
extension work, the majority of respondents, 86
per cent, are of the opinion that the most
important role is that of linking extension workers
to farmers, 12 percent view the most important
role as that of advising extension workers on
farming problems and 2 percent view early
adoption of improved farming practices as the
most important role. The result of the survey
suggests that opinion leaders have a significant
role to play in extension work in the
dissemination of innovations to farmers to
increase production for food security.
The majority of those surveyed, 74 per cent, are of
the opinion that opinion leaders interact with
extension workers once or more per month, 2 per
cent think interaction between opinion leaders
and extension workers is once in 1 – 3 months and
8 per cent think once in 4 – 6 months. Only 16 per
cent of those surveyed do not see any interaction
between opinion leaders and extension workers.
According to the survey it can be concluded that
84 per cent of the respondents are of the opinion
that there is some sort of interaction between
opinion leaders and extension workers. This
seems to confirm the role played by opinion
leaders in extension work in Luri County.
On the capacity of opinion leaders the survey
shows that the majority of respondents, 74 per
cent, consider opinion leaders to have a good
capacity to provide advice, 6 consider capacity
satisfactory and 4 per cent of the respondents
consider that capacity of opinion leaders to be
excellent. However, 16 per cent of respondents
consider the capacity of opinion leaders to provide
advice as poor. In all, the majority of respondents
in the survey, 84 per cent, are positive about the
capacity of opinion leaders in providing advice to
farmers. According to Rogers (1983), opinion
leaders are individuals who lead in influencing
opinions of others about innovations.
Asked how they are satisfied with the role of
opinion leaders in extension work, the majority of
respondents, 82 per cent, simply say they are
satisfied, 4 per cent are very satisfied and 14 per
cent are not satisfied at all with the role of opinion
leaders in extension work. This research seems to
confirm that the majority of respondents, 86 per
cent, are satisfied with the role of opinion leaders
in extension work. This suggests a confirmation of
the significant role opinion leaders play in
extension work in the effort to improve farming in
Luri County.
The survey on the attention of extension workers
paid to opinion leaders shows that 38 per cent of
respondents consider that extension workers pay
a great deal of attention, 56 per cent pay only a
little and 6 per cent consider extension workers
hardly pay any attention to opinion leaders. It
seems the majority of respondents, 94 per cent,
consider that in one way or the other extension
workers pay attention to opinion leaders. This
again seems to confirm the significant role
opinion leaders play in extension work.
On the extent of consultation between extension
workers and opinion leaders, the result of the
survey shows that 20 per cent of the respondents
consider that extension workers always consult
with opinion leaders, 70 per cent consider that
sometimes there is consultation and 10 per cent
consider there is no consultation at all between
extension workers and opinion leaders. It shows
that 90 per cent of the respondents consider that
there is consultation between extension workers
and opinion leaders. This clearly suggests that
opinion leaders have a role in extension work in
the area.
In the survey the majority of respondents, 88 per
cent, agree that opinion leaders have a role to play
in extension work in the rural areas, 10 per cent
strongly agree and 2 per strongly disagree. Once
again the result seems to confirm that the
overwhelming majority of respondents, 98 per
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The Role of Opinion Leaders with Reference to Extension work in Luri County, Jubek State, South Sudan
cent, agree that opinion leaders have a role in
extension work. This clearly seems to confirm the
significant role of opinion leaders in extension
work in increasing production for food security in
Luri County in Jubek State, South Sudan.
Finally, on the improvement of the role of opinion
leaders in extension work, 50 per cent of the
respondents suggest training and financial
support to opinion leaders, 30 per cent
motivational incentives and 20 per cent of the
respondents suggest assistance with the mobility
of opinion leaders. It seems that the role of
opinion leaders in extension work is being taken
seriously with the majority of respondents
suggesting training and financial support, and
support of some kind. This may be because
opinion leaders are the nearest and easiest source
of agricultural information to other farmers
(Shekara et al., 2016).
V. CONCLUSION
The hypothesis was that opinion leaders did not
have a role with reference to extension work in
Luri County in Jubek State, South Sudan. The
purpose of the research was therefore to
determine the extent of the role of opinion leaders
in extension work.
The result of the research seems to confirm that
opinion leaders play a significant role in extension
work in Luri County and the main role is in
linking extension workers to farmers. In addition,
the farmers are satisfied with the role of opinion
leaders in extension work in the area.
In conclusion, the most important role of opinion
leaders considered in extension work, is linking
extension workers to farmers in realizing
agricultural development, achievement of food
security and reduction of poverty.
5.1 Recommendation for further research
Further research is recommended with a larger
sample and a wider area for possible increase in
reliability in confirming the extent opinion leaders
have a role to play in extension work in
dissemination of innovations to farmers to
increase production for self-reliance. Further
research is also recommended on problems that
may occur with the role of opinion leaders in
extension work. This is in order to increase the
understanding of problems of the role of opinion
leaders in agricultural development in raising
living standards and reducing poverty.
5.2 Conflict of interests
It can be confirmed with confidence that there is
no conflict of interests in this research.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am greatly indebted to my former student at the
University of Juba, Mr. Samuel Akech Chanyok,
for having carried out the field surveys on the role
of opinion leaders in extension work where some
of the results have become part of this research
paper. Without the effort made by Mr. Samuel
Akech Chanyok, this research paper would not
have taken this present shape. I am very grateful
to Dr. Philip Wani Marcelo, the Executive
Director in the Office of the Vice Chancellor,
University of Juba for his advice on the use of data
already collected from the field by students.
Finally, I am very grateful to Ms Josephine Rafa
Kiliopa for printing of drafts of the research
paper.
REFERENCES
1. A.W. van den Ban and H. S. Hawkins, 1996.
Agricultural Extension, Second Edition,
Blackwell Science Ltd., London, UK.
2. D. A. Bryars, 1983. Advanced Level Statistics,
University Tutorial Press Ltd., Slough, UK.
3. Derek Rowntree, 1981. Statistics without tears,
A Primer for Non-mathematicians, Penguin
Books Ltd., London, UK.
4. Everett M. Rogers, 1983. Diffusion of
Innovations, Third Edition, The Free Press,
New York, USA.
5. Ian MacDonald and David Hearle, 1984.
Communication Skills for Rural Development,
Evan Brothers Limited, London, UK.
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The Role of Opinion Leaders with Reference to Extension work in Luri County, Jubek State, South Sudan
6. John Howell, 1986. “Accountability in
Extension Work”, in Gwyn E. Jones ed.
Investing in Rural Extension: Strategies and
Goals, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers,
London, UK, pp. 213 – 218.
7. M. B. Zaria and Akin Omotayo, 1997.
“Improving Every Farmer’s Access to
Extension Services in Sub-Saharan Africa:
Approaches and Challenges”, in R. K. Samanta
and S. K. Arora eds. Management of
Agricultural Extension in Global Perspectives,
B. R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, India, pp.
123 – 138.
8. Marie Angelique Savane, 1986. “The Effects of
Social and Economic Change on the Role and
Status of Women in Sub-Saharan Africa”, in
Joyce Lewinger Moock ed. Understanding
Africa’s Rural Households and Farming
Systems, Westview Press, Inc., USA, pp. 124 –
132.
9. P. Chandra Shekara et al., 2016. Farmer’s
Handbook on Basic Agriculture, A holistic
perspective of scientific agriculture, A joint
initiative to impart farmers with technical
knowledge on basic agriculture, Desai Fruits &
Vegetables, Pvt. Ltd., India.
10. P. Oakley and C. Garforth, 1985. Guide to
extension training, FAO, Rome.
11. Russell Langley, 1968. Practical Statistic, For
Non-Mathematical People, The Principles and
Practice of Statistical Inference, Pan Books
Ltd., London, UK.
12. Southern Sudan Centre for Census, Statistics
and Evaluation, 2010. Statistical Yearbook for
Southern Sudan. Website: www.ssccse.org
13. Steve Wiggins, 1986. “Agricultural Policy and
Agricultural Extension: The African
Experience”, in Gwyn E. Jones ed. Investing in
Rural Extension: Strategies and Goals,
Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London,
UK, pp. 99 – 106.
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The Role of Opinion Leaders with Reference to Extension work in Luri County, Jubek State, South Sudan
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ABSTRACT
Scan to know paper details andauthor's profile
Hannah Arendt and Walter Benjamin: Eros of Friendship and Elective Affinities in Dark Times
Maria Francisca Pinheiro Coelho
When we talk about the relationship between Hannah Arendt (1906-1975) and Walter Benjamin
(1892-1940) the friendship between the two authors is always remembered. The philosopher Hans Jonas -
Arendt's friend since they were classmates at the University in Marburg – in the tributes paid on the
occasion of her death, highlighted her vocation for friendship. According to him, what moved her was the
Eros of friendship (Eros der Freundschaft).
Among her closest friends, there was Walter Benjamin, with whom she was familiar during the exile in
Paris, in the years from 1936 to 1940. What I would like to show is that friendship as conceived and grown
in practice by the two thinkers would be in the center of their life as a moral trace. This paper aims to
broaden the relationship between Arendt and Benjamin in two areas here interrelated: friendship, built in
the situation of Jewish-German refugees philosophers in Paris, and the elective affinities in relation to the
vision of modernity and to the concept of history.
Classification: For Code: 370199
Language: English
© 2019. Maria Francisca Pinheiro Coelho. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Universidade de Brasíli
Hannah Arendt and Walter Benjamin: Eros of Friendship and Elective Affinities in Dark Times
Maria Francisca Pinheiro Coelho
____________________________________________
ABSTRACT
When we talk about the relationship between 1
Hannah Arendt (1906-1975) and Walter
Benjamin (1892-1940) the friendship between the
two authors is always remembered. The
philosopher Hans Jonas - Arendt's friend since
they were classmates at the University in
Marburg – in the tributes paid on the occasion of
her death, highlighted her vocation for
friendship. According to him, what moved her
was the Eros of friendship (Eros der
Freundschaft).
Among her closest friends, there was Walter
Benjamin, with whom she was familiar during
the exile in Paris, in the years from 1936 to 1940.
What I would like to show is that friendship as
conceived and grown in practice by the two
thinkers would be in the center of their life as a
moral trace. This paper aims to broaden the
relationship between Arendt and Benjamin in
two areas here interrelated: friendship, built in
the situation of Jewish-German refugees
philosophers in Paris, and the elective affinities
in relation to the vision of modernity and to the
concept of history. 2
In suggesting to approach the interface between
the two authors through the concept of elective
affinities, the objective is to explore the dialogue
1Paper presented at the course: European Identity, 3-7
September 2018, in the Inter University Center (IUC), in
Dubrovnik, Croatia. 2
The subject of this work is part of my research as a Fellow of
the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível
Superior (CAPES), in the Senior Visiting Abroad Program,
from August/2018 to July/2019, at Freie Universität, Berlin,
Germany, at the Otto-Suhr-Institut für politische
Wissenschaft, under the supervision of Priv.-Doz. dr.
Wolfgang Heuer.
between their thought. Elective affinity is defined
as a particular type of relationship between
ideas, social or cultural configurations, not
reducible to causal determination directly or to
the influence in the traditional sense. 3
In all situations, whether in the interrelations
between subjects and works, or in the
convergence between social phenomena, the
concept of elective affinities corresponds to the
existence of attraction and reciprocities. It is a
convergence and mutual attraction between
certain situations and phenomena,
intersubjective and affective relationships. The
analytical limits of the research are
fundamentally delimited by the themes of
modernity and history, as a way of recovering
these themes in the contemporary times, in a
critical perspective.
Author: Universidade de Brasília – Brasil.
I. FRIENDSHIP AND ELECTIVE AFFINITIES IN DARK TIMES
Days before attempting exile in the United States,
Walter Benjamin met with Arendt in Marseilles,
France. He delivered to Arendt, among other
manuscripts, his latest essay, On the Concept of
History, which in New York was to be given to
Theodor W. Adorno, as representative of the
Institute for Social Research, of which Benjamin
was a member. The manuscript originally had no
title and Hannah Arendt entitled it Theses on the
Philosophy of History, in the book Illuminations,
3 Cf. LÖWY, Michel. Redenção e utopia: o judaísmo libertário
na Europa Central: um estudo de afinidade eletiva. São
Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1989.
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edited by her in 1968 with texts by Walter
Benjamin.
The name About the Concept of History was given
by Adorno, being adopted officially in the work of
Walter Benjamin. We chose to use the title 4
attributed by Arendt Theses on the Philosophy of
History for being closer to the posthumous
version left by Walter Benjamin entitled His-
torical-PhilosophicalReflections(Geschichtephilos
ophische Reflexionen). 5
According to Laura Adler, in her book Nos Passos
de Hannah Arendt (2007), a biography, the
frequent contact and friendship between Arendt
and Benjamin was an emotional security in those
times of prejudice and persecution. She describes
that always in the late afternoon Arendt was going
do meet Benjamin in the National Library, in
Paris. At night they read aloud and dissected texts
from Kafka: “He embodies for her the writer who
knows how to come out of nowhere and make any
idea of redemption definitely absurd. She is the
salvation for all his torments, the incarnation of
his resistance to the theology, his source of hope.
Each day he gives her the courage to live. Each
night, she helps him overcome his despair”. 6
The main idea of mine research is that the
friendship and elective affinities are part of
relationship between the two philosophers. The
Eros of friendship in the sense of cultivating
Hannah Arendt's affective relationship with her
friends would be close to Aristotle's
understanding of friendship in his book Ética a
Nicômacos: friendship as a moral excellence,
related to human coexistence and consequently of
the public sphere. Although Arendt referred to her
private world when she was speaking about her
friends, she had the dimension of this world in
4BENJAMIN, Walter. Über der begriff der Geschicte.
Suhrkamp – Herausgegeben von Gerard Rauled, 2008,
Werke. v. 19. 5Von Walter Benjamin Posthume Abschrift. In: BENJAMIN,
Walter – Über der begriff der Geschicte. Suhrkamp –
Herausgegeben von Gerard Rauled, 2008, Werke. v. 19. p.
93-106. 6ADLER, Laura. Nos passos de Hannah Arendt. Rio de
Janeiro: Record, 2007, p. 148 (Our translation).
which she felt secure about the outside world, in
which most of the time felt like a stranger.
The friendship for Hannah Arendt also involved
an understanding of friendship in Cicero in his
book Sobre a Amizade which is more concerned
with personal and affective relations. We
understand that the meaning of the cultivation of
friendship in Arendt involves both the
understanding of friendship, as a moral excellence
and a relation with the concept of world in
Aristotle, as well as the aspect pointed out by
Cicero of the personal relationships between
people who admire each other. Walter Benjamin
was her friend, but with him she also shared a
vision of the world outside.
In dark times, Berthold Brecht’ expression which
Hannah Arendt used as the title of her book Men
in Dark Times, published in 1970Arendt speaks
of the need to reconcile with the world. The sense
of belonging to the world was realized through the
private world of friends. Dark times are not new,
as they are not a rarity in history. She argues that
even in the darkest of times we have the right to
expect some illumination and that such
illumination may well come less from theories and
concepts, but from the history of men and great
works.
Walter Benjamin is unsuccessful in his attempt to
exile to the United States. In Port-Bou, a small
town on the border of France and Spain, he
decided to end his own life (ADORNO, 2012, p.
476). . In 1941, while waiting in Lisboa for the ship
to the United States, Hannah Arendt and Heinrich
Blücher, her second husband, read the Theses on
the Philosophy of History aloud to each other and
to the refugees who gathered around them. In
1942, Hannah Arendt registered her deep
friendship with Walter Benjamin in a poem,
entitled "W.B".
W. B
The twilight will come back someday.
The night will descend from the stars, We will rest
our arms outstretched Nearby, at distances. From
the darkness they sound softly Little archaic
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Hannah Arendt and Walter Benjamin: Eros of Friendship and Elective Affinities in Dark Times
melodies. Listening, Let's detach ourselves, Let's
finally break the ranks. Distant voices, closer to
mourning. These are the voices and the dead
pre-sent as messengers in front, to take us to
sleep.
7
II. ON THE CONCEPT OF HISTORY AND VISION OF MODERNITY
Storytelling has always been the art of retelling,
and it gets lost when the stories are no longer
preserved. She gets lost because no one else
wiggles or weaves as she hears the story. The
more the listener forgets himself, the more deeply
he records what is heard in him. When the rhythm
of work takes hold of him, he hears the stories in
such a way that he spontaneously acquires the gift
of telling them.
Walter Benjamin
The storyteller
The great deeds and works that mortals are
capable of, and which are the subject of historical
narrative, are not part of a totality or a
comprehensive process. The emphasis of
historical narrative always rests on unique
situations and isolated traits. These unique
situations, or events, interrupt the circular
movement of daily life. These interruptions are
the theme of history - the extraordinary, in other
words.
Hannah Arendt
The concept of ancient and modern history
The main references in this topic are the texts by
Hannah Arendt The Concept of history: Old and
Modern and the Tradition and Modern Age, both
from her book Between the Past and the Future;
and the last written by Walter Benjamin Theses on
7 W. B
Einmal dämmert Abend wieder, Nacht fällt nier von den
Sternen Liegen wir gestreckte Glieder In den Nägen, in den
Fernen Aus den Dunkelheiten tönen Sanfte kleine Melodeien.
Lauschen wir uns zu entwöhnen, Lockern endlich wir die
Reihen. Ferne Stimmen, naher Kummer - :Jene Stimmen
jener Toten Die wir vorgeschickt als Bote Uns zu leiten in den
Schlummer. Reproduced by Elisabeth Young-Bruehl,
Hannah Arendt, for love of the world. Yale University Press;
New Haven and London, 1982.
the Philosophy of History, that involve different
interpretations. The theses require a complex
reading and divided philosophical, Zionist and
Marxist views.
Schöttker and Wizisla argue that Hannah Arendt,
from whom in exile gained the trust of Walter
Benjamin, shaped the reception of his writings
like few others. Previously, Gershom Sholem and
Theodor W. Adorno, long time Benjamin's
friends, had emphasized philosophical and
theological perspectives. Arendt accused both of
repressing the materialistic positions of Walter
Benjamin: "This accusations became part of
controversy surrounding the editing and
interpretation of Benjamin's writings, which
continues to occupy the research until today". 8
According to Hannah Arendt in the essay Walter
Benjamin 1892-1940 in everything he wrote
proved to be a sui generis writer: "He had an
argute perception that all solutions were not only
objectively false and unsuitable to reality as
would lead him to a false salvation, which was
called Moscow or Jerusalem." The only position 9
for which he could be defined was of "a Homme
des lettres, whose unique perspectives neither the
Zionists nor the Marxists had or could have
conscience." 10
There are many transcriptions about these Theses.
As mentioned, the manuscript given by Walter
Benjamin to Hannah Arendt had no title, which
was published by Thedor W. Adorno as On the
Concept of History (Über der Begriff der
Geschicte). The Walter Benjamin’s Werke, volume
19, contains the different versions of the
manuscript, one of them Walter Benjamin's
Posthumous Transcript, entitled Historical
Philosophical Reflections. 11
8ARENDT und BENJAMIN. Herausgegeben von Detlev
Schöttker und Erdmut Wizisla. Germany. Suhrkamp, 2006,
p. 9 (Our translation). 9ARENDT, Hannah. Walter Benjamin: 1892-1940. In:
_____. Homens em tempos sombrios. São Paulo:
Companhia das Letras, 1987, p. 163 (Our translation). 10
Ibid., p. 156.
Geschichtesphilosophische Reflexionen. Von Walter
Benjamin Posthume Abschrift. In: Walter Benjamin – Über
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Hannah Arendt and Walter Benjamin: Eros of Friendship and Elective Affinities in Dark Times
11
In 1968, Hannah Arendt edited in New York the
book Illuminations, with a collection of texts by
Benjamin, among them Theses on the Philosophy
of History, the title adopted here. As Introduction
to the book she wrote the essay Walter Benjamin:
1892-1940. In the Editor's Note, Arendt clarifies
that the translation of the texts was from the
edition published and introduced by Professor
Adorno, under the title Schriften, by the
Suhrkamp Verlag, in 1955: "In the only case in
which I was able to compare the original
manuscript with the printed text, Theses on the
Philosophy of History, which Benjamin gave me
shortly before his death, I found many important
variants" (ARENDT, 1969, p. 266). She also
mentioned that the manuscript for the Theses was
first published in New Rundschau, in 1950.
In the relations of friendship and intellectuals
between Hannah Arendt and Walter Benjamin, it
is as if the wind of Benjamin's thought was
blowing in Arendt's own thinking, and vice versa.
Although the works of the two thinkers do not
always talk to each other, there is a comparative
potential to be explored. In this sense, the
questions and reflections on the conception of
history and the critical view of modernity in a
perspective of progress are probably the greatest
mark of the dialogue between them.
The poetic thought that Arendt attributes to
Benjamin could also be extended to her, who has a
particular predilection for literature and the art of
storytelling. Walter Benjamin and Hannah Arendt
both criticize the concept of History as something
linear, continuous and universal. If in Benjamin
there is a critique of the concept of history based
on an idea of progress, a critique to the concept of
history that seeks absolute truths, a critique of the
concept of history that seeks an idea of causality
(by ignoring occasional events capable of
illuminating a period), there isin this
understanding an identity with the concept of
history in Hannah Arendt.
der begriff der Geschicte. Suhrkamp – Herausgegeben von
Gerard Rauled, 2008, Werke. v. 19. p. 93-106.
If, for Walter Benjamin, the time of history is the
time of "now", the theme of the story in Hannah
Arendt is the “extraordinary”. In both, the
particular informs the understanding of the
general. Referring to the ancient history that fixes
on the narrative of the facts, Arendt recalls:
"Causality and context were seen as a light
provided by the event itself, illuminating a specific
segment of human problems; were not regarded
as possessing an independent existence that the
event would be merely the more or less accidental
expression, however appropriate". 12
If we compare Theses on the philosophy of history
with the conception of history as the
extraordinary in Hannah Arendt, it is possible to
perceive that the two authors are in fact referring
to a critique of the modern conception of history
and to a critique of modernity itself as a
continuum. In relation to the understanding of
history, the elective affinities between the two
philosophers focus on the critique of modernity,
by a totalizing vision. For them, the notion of
experience and the meaning of particular events
are essential for understanding the history.
According to Arendt, “Benjamin was not very
interested in theories or 'ideas' that did not
immediately assume the most accurate external
form imaginable. For him, the Marxist relation
between superstructure and infrastructure
became, in a precise sense, a metaphorical
relation”. 13
For him, the metaphors are the means by which
the unity of the world is realized poetically.
Arendt emphasizes that Benjamin was therefore
motivated to regard the metaphor as the greatest
gift of language. The linguistic 'transference'
enables us to give material form to the invisible.
12ARENDT, Hannah. O Conceito de história – Antigo e
Moderno. In. ______. Entre o passado e o futuro. 2. ed. São
Paulo: Editora Perspectiva, 1988, p. 96 (Our translation). 13
ARENDT, Hannah. Walter Benjamin: 1892-1940. _____.
Homens em tempos sombrios. São Paulo: Companhia das
Letras, 1987, p. 143 (Our translation).
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Hannah Arendt and Walter Benjamin: Eros of Friendship and Elective Affinities in Dark Times
The two thinkers use very similar concepts, such
as the understanding of the meaning of particular
experiences and the historical narratives. In their
thought there is a clear concern for the present
time and the meaning of particular events. Arendt
refers to a break in the thread of tradition, so that
the past no longer communicates with the
present. In the words of Benjamin, the angel of
history looks back and sees only a heap of ruins.
Walter Benjamin criticizes the understanding of
history as a positivist science, a vision that he
expresses in several passages in Theses on the
philosophy of history:
“The chronicler who narrates events, without
distinguishing between the major and the minor
ones does not take into account the truth that
nothing that has ever happened can be considered
lost in history. Undoubtedly, only redeemed
humanity can fully take hold of its past. This
means that only for redeemed humanity can the
past be quoted in each of its moments (Thesis 3). 14
“The true image of the past pervades swiftly. The
past can only be fixed, as an image that shines
irreversibly, at the moment it is recognized
(Thesis 5).” 15
Walter Benjamin criticizes the understanding of
history as a positivist science, a vision that he
expresses in several passages in Theses on the
philosophy of history:
“The chronicler who narrates events, without
distinguishing between the great and the small,
does not take into account the truth that nothing
that has ever happened can be considered lost in
history. Undoubtedly, only redeemed humanity
can fully take hold of its past. This means that
only for redeemed humanity can the past be
quoted in each of its moments (Thesis 3). 16
14BENJAMIN, Walter. Sobre o conceito de história.
In:______. Obras escolhidas. v/. 1. 3 ed. São Paulo: Editora
Brasiliense, 1987 (Our translation). 15
Ibid. 16
BENJAMIN, Walter. Sobre o conceito de história.
In :______. Obras escolhidas. v/. 1. 3 ed. São Paulo: Editora
Brasiliense, 1987 (Our translation).
“The true image of the past passes quickly. . The
past can only be fixed, as an image that a shines
irreversibly, at the moment it is recognized
(Thesis 5).” 17
“Articulating the past historically does not mean
knowing it 'as it was'. It means to appropriated a
reminiscence, just as it flashes in the moment of
danger (Thesis 6).” 18
According to Walter Benjamin the task of the
historian is “to write history against the grain”
(Thesis 7): 19
The idea of a progress of humanity in the history
is inseparable from the idea of its march inside an
empty and homogeneous time. The critique of the
idea of progress presupposes the critique of the
idea of this march (Thesis 13) . 20
The history is the object of a construction whose
place is not homogeneous and empty time, but a
time of 'now' (Thesis 14).
In the same sense, to Hannah Arendt the theme
of history is the understanding of particular
events capable of illuminating a time. The great
deeds and works that human beings are capable,
and which are the subject of historical narrative,
are not part of a totality or a comprehensive
process: "The emphasis always falls on unique
situations and isolated traits. These unique
situations or events interrupt the circular
movement of daily life. The theme of history are
these interruptions - the extraordinary, in other
words ". 21
According to Arendt, the history, as a narrative of
facts, must consider elements, such as: the
narrative of facts and events; story of action of the
winners and losers; the figure of the testimonies.
There would not be the concept of universal
history and of humanity as a whole, for every is
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid .
20 Ibid.
21ARENDT, Hannah. O Conceito de história – Antigo e
Moderno. Ibid., p. 72 (Our translation).
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Hannah Arendt and Walter Benjamin: Eros of Friendship and Elective Affinities in Dark Times
conceived as itself, insofar as the particular
informs the understanding of the general:
“Causality and context were seen in a light
provided by the event itself, illuminating a specific
segment of human problems; were not regarded
as possessing an independent existence that the
event would be merely the more or less accidental
expression, however appropriate”. 22
Her critique of the modern concept of history
focused on the following elements: the idea of
progress; the relation between cause and effect;
the generalized explanation of facts, to the
detriment of looking at the particular; the
influence of the Hegelian view of history as the
uninterrupted development of the spirit.
According to Arendt, the absence of meaning of
the modern world is announced with the
identification between means and ends. The
breaking of the ties of tradition would be the
glorification of the work activity (understood as
fabrication) in detriment of politics activity as the
construction of agreements and of philosophy as
the activity of thought. The alienation of the
modern world would be characterized by the loss
of a common world only possible in the public
space: "The modern age, its growing alienation
from the world, has led to a situation in which
man, wherever he goes, finds only himself ". 23
III. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
It was suggested in this comparative paper
between the thought of Hannah Arendt and
Walter Benjamin, constructed in times of
totalitarianism and war, that the elective affinities
between the two thinkers reside in the following
aspects: in a particular relation about the critique
of modernity and the idea of progress; in the
critique of the concept of history that excludes the
focus on the capacity to illuminate of particular
events; in the notion of individual experience as
something non transferable; and in valuing the
collective experience as capable of breaking with
22 Ibid., p. 96.
23 Ibid., p. 125.
the continuum and creating revolutionary
situations.
However, the similarities to the aspects discussed
here do not erase the theoretical status and
trajectory of each work in particular. In Hannah
Arendt, the critique of modernity rests on a deep
questioning of Marxist theory and for his
glorification of the activity of work in the the
detriment of the activity of politics, as a
characteristic of action par excellence. In Walter
Benjamin, the critique of modernity results from
an appreciation of historical materialism as a
possibility of redemption.
The critique of the modern concept of history in
Hannah Arendt and of a linear and empty time in
Walter Benjamin are very similar and
demonstrate affinities of visions in relation to the
characteristics and problems of the modern era.
However, when discussing the elective affinities in
the thinking of the two philosophers this work
does not have a pretension of homogenization of
its approaches. Life stories and unique trajectories
can contribute to the knowledge of ideas that
illuminate the understanding of a time and its
characters without excluding each particular
experience.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE
1. ADLER, Laure. Nos passos de Hannah Arendt.
Tradução de Tatiana Salem Levy e Marcelo
Jacques. Rio de Janeiro: Record, 2007. 643 p.
2. ADORNO, Theodor W. Características de
Walter Benjamin. In: COHN, Gabriel (Org.).
Tradução Flávio R. Kothe, Aldo Onesti, Amélia
Cohn. São Paulo: Editora Ática, 1986, p.
188-200.
3. ADORNO, Theodor W. Correspondência
1928-1940: Theodor W. Adorno, Walter
Benajmin. São Paulo: Editora Unesp, 2012.
476 p.
4. ARENDT, Hannah. A tradição e a época
moderna. In: ______. Entre o passado e o
future. 2 ed. São Paulo: Editora Perspectiva,
1988, p. 43-68.
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5. ARENDT, Hannah. Between Past and Future.
New York. Penguin Books USA Inc., 1993.
6. ARENDT, Hannah. Men in Dark Times. New
York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1983.
7. ARENDT, Hannah. O Conceito de história –
Antigo e Moderno. In: ______. Entre o
passado e o future. 2. ed. São Paulo: Editora
Perspectiva, 1988, p. 69-126.
8. ARENDT, Hannah. Walter Benjamin:
1892-1940. In:_____. Homens em tempos
sombrios. Tradução de Denise Botmann. São
Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1987b, 133-176.
9. ARISTÓTELES. Ética a Nicômacos. Tradução
de Mário da Gama Kury. 2 ed. Brasília: Editora
Universidade de Brasília, 1992. 238 p.
10. BENJAMIN, Walter; SCHOLEM, Gershom.
Correspondência. São Paulo: Editora
Perspectiva, 1993. 367 p.
11. BENJAMIN, Walter. As afinidades eletivas em
Goethe. In: _____. Ensaios reunidos: escritos
sobre Goethe. Tradução de Monica Krausz
Bornebusch. São Paulo: Duas cidades: Editora
34, 2009, p. 11-121.
12. BENJAMIN, Walter. Reflections. New York.
Harcourt Brace Jowanovich, Inc. 2007.
13. BENJAMIN, Walter. Sobre o conceito de
História. In: ______. Obras Escolhidas.
Tradução de Sergio Paulo Rouanet. v. 1. 3 ed.
São Paulo: Editora Brasiliense, 1987, p.
222-232.
14. BENJAMIN, Walter. Theses on the philosophy
of history. In: _____. Illuminations. Edited
and with an Introduction by Hannah Arendt.
New York. Harcourt Brace Jowanovich, Inc.
1969.
15. BENJAMIN, Walter. Über der begriff der
Geschicte. Suhrkamp – Herausgegeben von
Gerard Rauled, 2008, Werke. v. 19.
16. CÍCERO, Marco Túlio. Sobre a amizade. São
Paulo: Editora Nova Alexandria, 2006. 119 p.
17. GAGNEBIN, Jeanne Marie. Walter Benjamin,
‘um estrangeiro de nacionalidade
indeterminada, mas de origem alemã’. In:
Seligmann-Sivla, Marcio. Leituras de Walter
Benjamin. São Paulo: FAPESP; Anablume,
1999, 201-208.
18. GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang von. As afinidades
eletivas. 1 ed. São Paulo: Penguin Classics
Companhia das Letras, 2014. 319 p.
19. LÖWY, Michel. Redenção e utopia: o judaísmo
libertário na Europa Central: um estudo de
afinidade eletiva. São Paulo: Companhia das
Letras, 1989. p.
20. SCHOLEM, Gershom. Walter Benjamin: a
história de uma amizade. São Paulo: Editora
Perspectiva, 1989. 230 p.
21. SCHÖTTKER, Detlev; WIZISLA, Erdmut.
Arendt und Benjamin. Germany: Suhrkamp
Verlag, 2006. 210 p.
22. WHITTE, Bernd. Walter Benjamin: uma
biografia. Tradução de Romério Freitas. Belo
Horizonte: Autêntica Editora, 2017. 159 p.
23. YOUNG-BRUEHL, Elisabeth. Hannah Arend,
for love of the world. Yale University Press;
New Haven and London, 1982.
24. YOUNG-BRUEHL, Elisabeth. Por amor ao
mundo: a vida e a obra de Hannah Arendt.
Tradução de Antônio Trânsito. Rio de Janeiro:
Relume Dumará, 1997. 492 p.
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LJP Copyright ID: 573334Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792
London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
ABSTRACT
Scan to know paper details andauthor's profile
Political Activities of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman as a Charismatic Leader
Manjurul Hossain Reza
University of LUCT
Keywords: sheikh mujibur rahman; leadership; charismatic; independence; patriotism.
Classification: For Code: 160699
Language: English
Present independent Bangladesh is the result of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s patriotism, lifelong contribution
measurable courage unbreakable determination, charismatic, and sacrificing leadership. The people of
Bangladesh had dreamt of an independent nation and that dream was finally implemented in really on 16th
December 1971 under the leadership of a true Patriot Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Sheikh Mujib has
extraordinary leadership abilities that recognized him as a leader of democracy for the people. His
leadership traits and sacrifice made him the father of the nation. Sheikh Mujib was stimulated people by
his charismatic leadership capability and huge political knowledge. He united the common people to
struggle about their fundamental rights and freedom as well as the independent country. His discourse of
7th March, today considered as the most influential and patriotic discourse whole over the world among all
leaders. Sheikh Mujib, charmingly called ‘Bangobondhu’ or friend of Bangladesh, shaped their hopes and
desires into a dream and betted his life in the lifelong battle to make it real. The purpose of this study is to
demonstrate the leadership qualities and the political activities of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. This study was
carried out by descriptive analysis through the literature review of existing papers.
© 2019. Manjurul Hossain Reza. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Political Activities of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman as a Charismatic Leader
Manjurul Hossain Reza ____________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Present independent Bangladesh is the result of
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s patriotism, lifelong
contribution measurable courage unbreakable
determination, charismatic, and sacrificing
leadership. The people of Bangladesh had dreamt
of an independent nation and that dream was
finally implemented in really on 16th December
1971 under the leadership of a true Patriot Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman. Sheikh Mujib has
extraordinary leadership abilities that
recognized him as a leader of democracy for the
people. His leadership traits and sacrifice made
him the father of the nation. Sheikh Mujib was
stimulated people by his charismatic leadership
capability and huge political knowledge. He
united the common people to struggle about their
fundamental rights and freedom as well as the
independent country. His discourse of 7th March,
today considered as the most influential and
patriotic discourse whole over the world among
all leaders. Sheikh Mujib, charmingly called
‘Bangobondhu’ or friend of Bangladesh, shaped
their hopes and desires into a dream and betted
his life in the lifelong battle to make it real. The
purpose of this study is to demonstrate the
leadership qualities and the political activities of
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. This study was carried
out by descriptive analysis through the literature
review of existing papers.
Keywords: sheikh mujibur rahman; leadership;
charismatic; independence; patriotism.
I. INTRODUCTION Freedom is the person’s most desirable basic need
and people always looking for freedom. But before
1971 in Bangladesh there is no independence for
people, they had been discriminately ruled by
Pakistani (west Pakistan) autocratic and
corrupted leaders. Many men had dreamt and
talked about independent Bangladesh through
signs and Gestures, the man Sheikh Mujib had
completed the task like an architect and founded
the sovereign Bangladesh (Mamun, n.d.). Right
from the beginning Sheikh Mujib’s had a
propensity for politics and he had a very strong
political talent and was an exceptional
speechmaker who could mesmerize all categories
of people with his glowing discourses. He raised
his strong voice against the oppression of
Pakistan. Every leader in the world has obviously
got minor support as a leader of a community but
Mujib had never a single opponent against him
(Trisha, Alom, Zaman, & Munna, 2017). The
advocacy of the liberation movement leading
towards the breakup of Pakistan and independent
Bangladesh, that really happened and Sheikh
Mujib was given credit for this. The resolution of
people’s problem in the year of 1971, it must have
been the visualization of the separate state for
Bangladeshi people (Kokab, n.d.).
He is a simple, dedicated, and trusted mass leader
and the symbol of freedom and defense of
peoples’ right. Sheikh Mujib was a leader with
massive charismatic power and able to highly
motivate and stimulus the individuals (Pandey,
2004). He was a committed leader, an
affectionate father, and a dedicated comrade
(Rahman et al., 2014). The core objective of this
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31 © 2019 London Journals Press Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
Author: Manjurul Hossain Reza, Center for
Postgraduate Studies Limkokwing University of
Creative Technology 1/1, Innovasi, Jalan Teknokrat,
Cyberjaya, Malaysia.
article is to discover the charismatic leadership
characteristics of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman which
characteristics brought the independence of
Bangladesh.
II. CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP TRAITS OF SHEIKH MUJIBUR RAHMAN
Charismatic leadership has emphasized primarily
the personality and behavior of leaders and their
effects on followers, organizations, and society
(García-morales, Jiménez-barrionuevo, &
Gutiérrez-gutiérrez, 2012). Charismatic
leadership is focused on a number of defining
variables including charismatic leader behavior,
characteristics of the followers and charismatic
leader-follower relationship, contextual influences
and liabilities of leadership (Bass, 1999; Conger,
2015; T & Gardner, 2005). In below here depicted
some charismatic leadership traits of Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman which are as follows:
2.1 Visionary
Clear vision is the strong leadership traits of great
leader Sheikh Mujib. His vision was independent
Bangladesh and he knew that Bangladesh will
have independent, that is not a long way. From
the beginning of 1960, Sheikh Mujib had two
objectives, one of those was vision about
independent Bangladesh and another one was to
build up the Awami League, blowout the
organization throughout the country and establish
a civil society by going to power on Awami League
platform against the West Pakistani rulers
(Mamun, n.d.). When leaders Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman set clear vision and goals and become
determined, backing those goals with unshakable
self-confidence, they develop charisma (Ulllah,
2018). Official Manifesto of the historical six
points which was declared on the 7th June 1966
by Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman which
is the result of the visionary thinking of Sheikh
Mujib for the sovereignty of Bangladesh as well as
the East Pakistan (Chowdhury, n.d.). He was
seeing the independence of Bangladesh,
on December 5, 1969, Mujib declared at a public
meeting held to observe the death anniversary of
Suhrawardy that henceforth East Pakistan would
be called "Bangladesh (Bhatnagar, 1971). This is
the sign of his visionary leadership.
2.2 Influential Voice and Speeches
Sheikh Mujib’s had a capability to attract people
with his voice and discourse in both Bengali and
English languages which often evoked with
enjoyment and melancholy (Solaiman &
Solaiman, 2013). According to British Journalist
Sir Mark Tully, he had a magnificent voice that
could mesmerize the crowd and his voice was
redolent of thunder. He motivated and inspired
people by his mesmerizing and enthusiastic
speeches. Sheikh Mujib’s historic speech with a
powerful voice at the Racecourse Ground in
Dhaka on March 7, 1971, was the declaration of
independence of Bangladesh. The voice of Sheikh
Mujib had a strong power that destroyed the
anarchy of Pakistan and today his voice
considered as the most powerful and influential
all over the world (Trisha et al., 2017). By his
flaming oratory convinced the poverty-stricken
people that they had been broken evil policy of
West Pakistan (Kokab, n.d.).
2.3 Rock-Solid Personality
Sheikh Mujib was the man of rock-solid and
pleasing personality (Solaiman & Solaiman,
2013). About to say his personality Ved Marwah,
the former governor of Manipur and Jharkhand,
India stated that, I have met many charismatic
personalities during my service career, including
Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi,
and many world leaders, but I must say that
among them Sheikh Mujib was the most
charismatic personality I had ever met. Cuba's
supreme leader Fidel Castro expressed that, "I
have not seen the Himalayas. But I have seen
Sheikh Mujib. In personality and in courage, this
man is the Himalayas. I have thus had the
experience of witnessing the Himalayas." Many
renowned personalities spoke out words of praises
beyond limit about Sheikh Mujib, his charismatic
leadership, sky-high personality, indomitable
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Political Activities of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman as A Charismatic Leader
courage and unconditional respect and
commitment for the nation (Center, 2016).
2.4 Talented Organizer
But Sheikh Mujib’s organizational capacity was
unique. He had the two qualities of tolerance and
flexibility, which were needed for making the
Awami League bigger (Mamun, n.d.). He was also
a brilliant coordinator. Through his unbreakable
mentality, uniting talent and pleasant behaviors,
he constructed up an exceptional political figure
as a charismatic leader. He has surprising talent
that he could remember the name of every
political worker or non-political person he met
(Shahnawaz, 2015; Solaiman & Solaiman, 2013).
We all know that to conjugate the common people
is very difficult for any leader. No leader can
conjugate the whole people except Sheikh Mujib
(Reza & Yasmin, 2019). In 1971 Mujib convinced
the whole population to fight against West
Pakistan (Trisha et al., 2017). Because of his
talented organizing capacity, the whole people of
this country reunited in 1971 against West
Pakistan for the liberation of Bangladesh.
2.5 Confidence and Courage
He also had incredible self-confidence and
courage. The prospering of the party had also
raised his confidence in himself as well as the
people. That was why he could transform the
6-points into a 1-point. And this was his vision or
dream, an independent Bangladesh (Mamun,
n.d.). Another example of Sheikh Mujib’s courage
is On December 5, 1969, he declared at a public
meeting that East Pakistan would be called
"Bangladesh and his declaration heightened
tensions across the country, especially amongst
West Pakistani politicians and the military, who
began to see him as an openly separatist leader
(Bhatnagar, 1971; Foundation, n.d.). Sheikh Mujib
never gave up any of his mission to make the
country independent from an impossible
environment of torture, discrimination,
punishment, and detention by the Pakistani
government (Mahabub Alam, 2016).
2.6 Caring for Common People
Sheikh Mujib adored everyone with his soul
especially the deprived, the needy, and the
helpless people . He aided everybody with the
whole thing even beyond his capability to relieve
the griefs of the common individuals (Mahabub
Alam, 2016). Sheikh Mujib has shaped his
political association along with his philosophy
directed to the mitigation of unhappiness of
commonplace human beings (Reza, 2019). He in
no way forgot that his starting place came from
rural regions and he constantly thrived to helped
rurally and deprived humans even when his very
own existence became at risks (Mahabub Alam,
2016; Solaiman & Solaiman, 2013). His power of
motivation is unique and his magical inspirational
motivating power inspired publics who have
forgone their millions valuable life dedicated
during the liberation movement and the battle of
freedom in 1971 (Mahabub Alam, 2016;
Shahnawaz, 2015).
III. YOUNG AGE LEADERSHIP ACTIVITIES OF SHEIKH MUJIBUR RAHMAN
Sheikh Mujib showed the potential of leadership
since his school life. In 1940 he entered student
politics and joined the All India Muslim Students
Federation. Later in 1943 he joined the Muslim
League and became a close aid of Hussain
Shaheed Suhrawardy (Solaiman & Solaiman,
2013). Sheikh Mujib was elected General
Secretary of Islamia College Students Union in
1946. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree from
Islamia College under Calcutta University (1947).
In 1948 Sheikh Mujib was one of the first among
the student language movement captives on 11
March 1948 (Trisha et al., 2017). Huseyn Shaheed
Suhrawardy the populist leader of his time
originally recruited Mujib to counter his political
rivals and under Shaheed Suhrawardy, Sheikh
Mujib began his career as a muscleman student
leader and Mujib remained loyal to him until his
death in 1962 (Shahnawaz, 2015).
Sheikh Mujib’s political activities successfully
started out with the encouragement of Huseyn
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Shaheed Suhrawardy and Sher-e-Bangka A K
Fazlul Huq and with the benison of those
distinguished leaders he steps by step have
become the ‘Political Hero’ of former East
Pakistan (Mahabub Alam, 2016). His mounting
attractiveness among the people became the most
important risk to the dominant Pakistani
administration and Pakistani armed forces
consequently made several hopeless efforts to
destroy his image (Chowdhury, n.d.; Khan, 1997;
Mahabub Alam, 2016). Sheikh Mujib was born in
a middle-class Bengali family in a backward
village of Gopalganj and he grew up under the
discriminative and storm-tossed politics of the
sub-continent and the Second World War.
He witnessed the devastation of war and the blunt
realities of the 1943 famine which occurred in
Bengal where about five million people lost their
lives. The miserable dilemma of the people under
the colonial rule turned him into a rebel politician
against discrimination (Shahnawaz, 2015). When
communal riots broke out in the wake of the
partition of India and the birth of Pakistan,
Bangobondhu played a pioneering role in
protecting Muslims and trying to contain the
violence (Bhatnagar, 1971). As a student political
leader, Sheikh Mujib rose in East Bengali politics
and within the ranks of the Awami League as a
charismatic and forceful speaker. As a promoter
of socialism, Mujib became popular for his
leadership against the ethnic, social and
institutional discrimination. (Rahman et al.,
2014).
IV. FULL FLEDGE LEADERSHIP ACTIVITIES OF SHEIKH MUJIBUR RAHMAN
In 1950, when Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan of
Pakistan announced ‘Urdu’ will have the state
language of both Pakistans, the whole Bangladesh
was against it and Sheikh Mujib was at its front
position (Chowdhury, n.d.). He played a frontier
and significant role in the movement for ‘Bengali’
as the state language and he was at prison in 21st
February,1952 by arrested without charge under
the Public Service Act to protest Mujib’s indefinite
hunger strike movement in the perspective of
mother language (Center, n.d.; Foundation, n.d.).
On 9 July 1953 he was elected General Secretary
of the East Pakistan Awami Muslim League. In
1954 Sheikh Mujib won the election for the
Gopalganj constituency by defeating the powerful
Muslim League leader Wahiduzzaman and joined
A K Fazlul Huq’s United Front government as the
youngest minister for agriculture and forest in the
new provincial government. The central
government illogically dismissed the United Front
ministry on 29 May 1954 and Sheikh Mujib was
once again thrown into prison (Bhatnagar, 1971;
Chowdhury, n.d.; Foundation, n.d.).
In 1955, Sheikh Mujib was elected a member of
the Constituent Assembly of west Pakistan and
Awami Muslim League dropped the word
‘Muslim’ from its name in a council meeting to
make the party a truly patriotic and secular one.
Mujib was re-elected general secretary of the
newly formed party- Awami league (Center, n.d.;
Chowdhury, n.d.; Foundation, n.d.). In 1957
Mujib resigned from the cabinet for working
full-time to strengthen and organized newly
formed party the Awami League. In 1958 Sheikh
Mujib was arrested, jailed, and continuously
harassed in false cases for organized a movement
against the military government and he was
released after 14 months in prison (Chowdhury,
n.d.; Shahnawaz, 2015). In 1961 he set up an
underground organization called ‘Swadheen
Bangla Biplobi Parishad’ in English Revolutionary
Council for Independent Bengal, conceding
leading student leaders in order to work for the
independence of Bangladesh, in addition he
started to covert political activities against the
military dictator Ayub Khan (Center, n.d.;
Foundation, n.d.).
In 1962 Mujib joined other national leaders to
protest the unlawful measures introduced by
general Ayub Khan. He made a public rally at
Paltan Maidan and courageously and vigorously
criticized Ayub Khan in his influential speech
(Foundation, n.d.). In 1964 Mujib led a committee
to defuse riots and after the riots he launched a
forceful anti-Ayub movement on behalf of his
party (Bhatnagar, 1971). On behalf of Awami
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league in 1966, Mujib presented his six-points
which is actually a demands of autonomy in the
perspective of East Pakistan as well as
Bangladesh. In this year Mujib was elected as the
president of the Awami League and he launched a
campaign, travelled around the country to obtain
support for the six-points (Chowdhury, n.d.;
Foundation, n.d.; Kokab, n.d.). Sheikh Mujib’s
move raised howls of protest all over East
Pakistan. The civil, military, bureaucrats, and
politicians spanning both government and
opposition circles were quick to dub the Six Points
as a departure plan to dissected Pakistan (Center,
n.d.; Mamun, n.d.).
In 1968, Sheikh Mujib charged with conspiracy to
break up Pakistan. Thirty-five Bangalees, headed
by Sheikh Mujib, accused of conspiracy to break
up Pakistan through declaring its eastern province
as an independent state. The case, which known
as the ‘Agartala Conspiracy Case’, which
withdrawn under the terrific movement of people
of Bangladesh on February 22, 1969. After that
day, millions of crowd roared its approval when
Tofail Ahmed, then a leading student leader,
proposed Sheikh Mujib as the title of
‘Bangobondhu’, friend of Bengal (Ahsan, 1969;
Chowdhury, n.d.; Paul, n.d.). On December
5, 1969, Sheikh Mujib declared at a public
meeting held to observe the death anniversary of
Suhrawardy that from today East Pakistan would
be called "Bangladesh” (Foundation, n.d.). In
1970 Mujib was re-elected president of the Awami
League and in the general election the Awami
League won the election with an absolute
majority, but in 1971, Yahiya Khan illegally
postponed the National Assembly. On 7 March
1971 in his historical speech Sheikh Mujib in a
sense he declared the independence and given the
direction (Chowdhury, n.d.; Foundation, n.d.).
At the deadliest night of 25th March, the Pakistani
army suddenly attacked and killed the innocent
unarmed Bangalees.Mujib declared independence
at 12:30 a.m. of 26th March and his declaration
was transmitted by wireless as a message
immediately throughout the country under special
arrangements in English and Bengali (Center,
n.d.; Chowdhury, n.d.; Foundation, n.d.). He
briefed all his followers a way to act in his absence
because he knew that he would possibly arrested
at any time and therefore not have an effect on the
momentum to steer and keep the war of
liberation. With his preprogrammed supervision
and declaration of independence trailed by the
followers subsequently accelerated the
independence and provided his inhabitants an
free state in his absence (Mahabub Alam, 2016;
Shahnawaz, 2015). Out of 24 years of Pakistani
regime before independence he consumed about
12 years in prison. In fact, he spent the best part
of his youth behind the prison bars and he turned
into almost hanged twice but he by no means gave
up his mission to redeem the inhabitants from the
domination (Center, n.d.; Chowdhury, n.d.;
Mahabub Alam, 2016).
V. EVER LIVING 7TH MARCH
A speech can have changed the status of a nation
from dependent to independent, can inspired and
motivated the country’s whole people, can be
united for freedom, can a simple person
transformed into a rebel for motherland- the 7th
March speech of Sheikh Mujib is that such kind of
speech, the other name of this speech is the
declaration of independence for the motherland.
He delivered this speech in uprising tension
situation between East Pakistan and the powerful
political and military establishment of West
Pakistan. The Bengali people were inspired to
prepare for a potential war of independence,
where a piece of news widespread that West
Pakistan mobilization and gathered their arms
and ammunitions (Center, n.d.; Foundation, n.d.).
On that day over a million people assembled at
the Ramna Race Course Maidan, later renamed
Suhrawardy Uddyan, on that day to hear their
leader’s command for the battle for liberation and
turning the area into a human sea. Sheikh Mujib
spoke in a thundering and powerful voice but in a
talented well-calculated restrained language with
judiciousness and charisma. His historic
declaration in the meeting was: "Our struggle this
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time is for freedom. Our struggle this time is for
independence (Chowdhury, n.d.; Foundation,
n.d.). The speech was spontaneous and there was
no written script. It is the open massage for the
masses from their leader Sheikh Mujib to declare
the independence of East Pakistan as well as
Bangladesh (Center, n.d.). This speech concluded
the long history of the struggle of Bangladeshi
people for democratic rights, economic justice and
cultural self-determination with constitutional
argument and direct them to prepare for a war of
independence.
VI. CONCLUSION
History has always been written by the powers of
extraordinary and charismatic leadership, and the
great personality Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was a
leader who had created the history of Bangladesh
and transformed Bangladesh into an independent
country from the dependent country. It was not
that, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman became
‘Bangobondhu’ and ‘Father of the Nation’ in
overnight or in a quick way. It took him three
decades, 12 years in prison, torture of ruler, love
of millions, sacrifice all comforts, to become a
Father of the Nation. Only he is the leader in the
world who can conjugates seven crore people
united in a body psychologically and
physiologically. A lot of researchers has stated
that charismatic leadership is unique and it's
varied from leader to leader, which uniqueness
made him/her as a charismatic leader. Sheikh
Mujib’s charismatic leadership is the merging of
so many traits as the immensity of his heart,
humanity, patience, liberalism, discourse,
personality; all of these had confirmed his
purpose to uphold the eternal and emotional bond
with enormous inhabitants.
Sheikh Mujib is an idol for the youth society. His
discourse, commitment, honesty, patriotism,
leadership style, and empathy to poor people
should be followed by the youth of Bangladesh.
He dedicated his whole life for the independence
and welfare of Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, no
other leader achieved such huge support and
popularity by the common people as Sheikh
Mujib. In this paper here to depicted the
leadership of Sheikh Mujib which is not only
difficult but also impossible because he is not a
simple man, a great personality, an institution,
above all he is another name of independent
Bangladesh. In a further paper, the author will try
to analyze and discuss the Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman's political views and activities after
achieving independence.
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LJP Copyright ID: 573335Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792
London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
ABSTRACT
Scan to know paper details andauthor's profile
The Compadrito’s Discursive Ethos in the Argentinean Tango and the Myth of the Femme
Fatale
Ayanne Larissa Almeida de Souza
Universidade Estadual da Paraíba
The myth of the femme fatale is present in the social imaginary in a latent and devastating form. Passing
through ancient mythologies and landing on the current condition of the feminine, we can see that,
although the struggle for women's rights has reached a scale never before seen in societies, there is still a
very strong image of the feminine destructive, negative and fatal. The woman-sex, the woman-desire, the
woman-ruin has contributed and still contributes to the fact that this imaginary persists and subjugates the
female element to submission and even to hatred of man. Our main objective is to analyze the myth of the
femme fatale in the Argentine Tango narratives, perceiving how the Tango singer's ethos is constructed and
how the doubly paratopic female figure is constituted and felt by the main male figure of the Tango, the
compadrito.
Keywords: tango; myth; fatal woman; paratopia; speech analysis.
Classification: For Code: 160899
Language: English
© 2019. Ayanne Larissa Almeida de Souza. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The Compadrito’s Discursive Ethos in the Argentinean Tango and the Myth of the Femme
Fatale
Ayanne Larissa Almeida de Souza
____________________________________________
ABSTRACT
The myth of the femme fatale is present in the
social imaginary in a latent and devastating
form. Passing through ancient mythologies and
landing on the current condition of the feminine,
we can see that, although the struggle for
women's rights has reached a scale never before
seen in societies, there is still a very strong image
of the feminine destructive, negative and fatal.
The woman-sex, the woman-desire, the
woman-ruin has contributed and still contributes
to the fact that this imaginary persists and
subjugates the female element to submission and
even to hatred of man. Our main objective is to
analyze the myth of the femme fatale in the
Argentine Tango narratives, perceiving how the
Tango singer's ethos is constructed and how the
doubly paratopic female figure is constituted and
felt by the main male figure of the Tango, the
compadrito.
Keywords: tango; myth; fatal woman; paratopia;
speech analysis.
RESUMO
O mito da mulher fatal encontra-se no imaginário
social de forma latente e devastadora.
Perpassando pelas antigas mitologias e
aterrissando na condição atual do feminino,
podemos perceber que, embora as lutas pelos
direitos da mulher tenham alcançado um escopo
jamais anteriormente visto nas sociedades, ainda
é muito forte a imagem desse feminino
destruidor, negativo, fatal. A mulher-sexo, a
mulher-desejo, a mulher-ruína fez e ainda faz com
que este imaginário persista e subjugue o
elemento feminino à submissão e mesmo ao ódio
do homem. Temos por finalidade analisar o mito
da mulher fatal nas narrativas do Tango
argentino, percebendo de que maneira o ethos do
cancioneiro do Tango é construído e de que forma
esta figura feminina, duplamente paratópica, é
constituída e sentida pela principal figura
masculina do Tango, o compadrito.
Palavras-chave: tango; mito; mulher fatal;
paratopia; análise do discurso.
RÉSUMÉ
Le mythe de la femme fatale est présent dans
l'imaginaire social sous une forme latente et
dévastatrice. Passant par les mythologies antiques
et atterrissant sur la condition actuelle du
féminin, nous pouvons constater que, bien que la
lutte pour les droits des femmes ait atteint une
ampleur encore jamais vue auparavant dans les
sociétés, il existe encore une image très forte du
féminin destructeur, négatif et fatal. La
femme-sexe, la femme-désir, la femme-ruine a
contribué et contribue encore à ce que cet
imaginaire persiste et subjugue l’élément féminin
à la soumission et même à la haine de l’homme.
Nous avons comme objectif principal d’analyser le
mythe de la femme fatale dans les récits du Tango
argentin, percevant de quelle manière l’ethos du
chanteur du Tango est construit et de quelle forme
la figure féminine, doublement paratopique, est
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O Ethos Discursivo do Compadrito no Tango Argentino eo Mito da Mulher Fatal
constituée et sentie par la figure masculine
principale du Tango, le compadrito.
Motsclés: tango; mythe; femme fatale;
paratopie; analyse du discours.
Author: Doutoranda em Literatura e Estudos Culturais
pelo Programa de Pós-Graduação em Literatura e
Interculturalidade da Universidade Estadual da
Paraíba (UEPB). Possui mestrado em Literatura e
Estudos Culturais. Graduada em História pela UEPB.
Graduação em Filosofia em andamento pela mesma
instituição.
I. INTRODUÇÃO
Por questões históricas, as mulheres
permaneceram à sombra dos homens em muitos
aspectos, inclusive no que diz respeito ao mundo
artístico e cultural. Ainda assim, estiveram e
continuam presentes, agregando valor à literatura
e às demais manifestações da arte. Como muito
bem nos demonstra a máxima mais conhecida do
pensamento de Simone de Beauvoir, “ninguém
nasce mulher, torna-se mulher” (2016, p.11), a
filósofa mostra que a mulher está presa a um
papel e a um destino pré-determinado e definido
pelo homem e que há sérias e complexas
contrariedades quando a mulher tenta, por
qualquer meio, subverter este papel imposto pelo
dominante.
Muitas das dificuldades que as mulheres
enfrentam atualmente deve-se ao fato de que
estão começando a adentrar regiões para as quais
não há arquétipos, não há modelos mitológicos
que lhes sirvam de exemplo, uma vez que estas
regiões, estes âmbitos socioculturais sempre
estiveram reservados aos homens. Como salienta
Campbell (2015), as mulheres estão exercendo
papéis que, antes, eram biológicose
psicologicamente arquetípicos dos homense
deixando para trás esta vinculação, a
predeterminação existencial arquetípica que as
vinculavam apenas ao papel biológico.
A ambição feminina de emancipar-se social e
existencialmente, cuja independência financeira,
com os começos do trabalho feminino no século
XIX, deu talvez a mais importante base, embora
sem receber por seu trabalho os benefícios morais
e sociais que tem por direito, sempre é sublevada
e descaracterizada por um discurso cujo principal
e mais cruel defensor são outras mulheres.
Determinações físicas, sociais, psicológicas,
culturais, religiosas reprimem a mulher. A
máxima de Beauvoir traz consigo a afirmação de
que.
Nenhum destino biológico, psíquico, econômico
define a forma que a fêmea assume no seio da
sociedade; é o conjunto da civilização que elabora
esse produto intermediário entre o macho e o
castrado, que qualificam de feminino. Somente a
mediação de outrem pode constituir um indivíduo
como um Outro. (2016, p.11).
Em outras palavras, quando a mulher se sujeita a
ser as escolhas feitas por outros ao invés de
realizar suas próprias escolhas, ela opta por
não-ser. A violência ontológica sofrida pelas
mulheres em sua condição existencial, sujeitadas
existencialmente a serem seres em-si , com uma 1
finalidade pré-estabelecida, não advém de
instintos ou de uma natureza original que as
destinariam à passividade, à maternidade, ao
casamento, mas sim devido à intervenção de uma
educação que lhes impõe a sua vocação de
maneira imperiosa e autoritária. Ao homem é-lhe
ordenado libertar-se desde pequeno; às mulheres,
o dever de alienar-se de sua pessoa e
considerar-se como um objeto inerte.
De acordo com Beauvoir (2016), tudo concorre
para afirmar essa ordem aos olhos femininos. A
história, a literatura, a filosofia, a música, os mitos
são sempre exaltações do masculino:
São os homens que fizeram a Grécia, o Império
Romano, a França e todas as nações, que
descobriram a Terra e inventaram todos os
instrumentos que permitem explorá-la, que a
governaram, que a povoaram de estátuas, de
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The compadrito’s discursive ethos in the argentinean tango and the myth of Femme Fatale
1Conceito da filosofia de Jean-Paul Sartre (2012), significa
objeto opaco, que não possui consciência de si mesmo e tem
finalidade pré-determinada antes mesmo de sua existência
factual. Os seres-em-si, segundo Sartre, são apenas os
objetos. Ex: uma cadeira, um lápis, uma faca. Para melhor
compreensão, ler O Ser e o Nada.
quadros e de livros. A literatura infantil, a
mitologia, contos, narrativas relatam os mitos
criados pelo orgulho e os desejos dos homens: é
através de olhos masculinos que a menina
explora o mundo e nele decifra seu destino. A
superioridade masculina é esmagadora:
Perseu, Hércules, Davi, Aquiles, Lancelot,
Duguesclin, Bayard, Napoleão, quantos
homens para uma Joana D’Arc; e, por trás
desta, perfila-se a grande figura masculina de
São Miguel Arcanjo! (BEAUVOIR, 2016, p.34)
Levando em consideração o exposto acima,
analisaremos a construção do mito da mulher
fatal dentro das narrativas do Tango argentino,
demonstrando como o ethos do cancioneiro do
Tango, esta voz masculina que fala, e não apenas
isso, possui um modo específico de falar e o diz
desde um lugar social, o arrabal, o marginal
social da cidade de Buenos Aires, constrói esta
mulher. Averiguaremos como este elemento
feminino fatal é concebido nas letras do Tango,
colapsando o sistema patriarcal e obrigando ao
elemento masculino reerguer-se, ainda que fosse
através do assassinato de sua contraparte.
II. O MITO – ALGUMAS CONSIDERAÇÕES
O mito conta histórias. Embora durante muito
tempo tenha sido utilizado como sinônimo de
fábula, ficção ou invenção, atualmente ele é
entendido tanto no sentido de ilusão, de história
falsa, como também na acepção de tradição
sagrada ou modelo exemplar. Cabem aos mitos
fornecerem protótipos para a conduta humana,
conferindo um sentido à existência e legitimando
o agir humano. O mito fala apenas daquilo que
aconteceu e descrevem as eclosões do sagrado no
mundo. Sendo considerado uma história sagrada,
o mito ratifica a si mesmo porque refere-se
sempre às realidades que podem ser fisicamente
comprovadas.
O conceito de mito como uma história sagrada
que narra acontecimentos ocorridos nos tempos
primordiais, in illo tempore, relatando como uma
realidade que não existia passou a existir, seja esta
realidade o Cosmo, uma ilha, uma nação, uma
espécie animal ou vegetal, uma instituição, o
próprio ser humano, é difícil de se obter, haja
vista que uma definição nem sempre agradaria a
todos os âmbitos que tem por objeto de análise o
mito. Mircea Eliade (1963, p.12) define o mito
quando diz que o mesmo:
[...] conta uma história sagrada, relata um
acontecimento que teve lugar no tempo
primordial, o tempo fabuloso dos “começos”.
Noutros termos, o mito conta como, graças aos
feitos dos seres sobrenaturais, uma realidade
passou a existir, quer seja a realidade total, o
Cosmos, quer apenas um fragmento: uma ilha,
uma espécie vegetal, um comportamento
humano, uma instituição. É sempre, portanto,
a narração de uma criação: descreve-se como
uma coisa foi produzida, como começou a
existir. O mito só fala daquilo que realmente
aconteceu, daquilo que se manifestou
plenamente.
No presente trabalho pretendemos analisar a
construção do mito da mulher fatal nas narrativas
de Tango, percebendo como este elemento
feminino, fatal ao homem e ao sistema patriarcal,
acerca-se das perspectivas dionisíacas, levantadas
por Camille Paglia, assim como também da
construção do imaginário, no que diz respeito aos
Regimes Diurno e Noturno, de Gilbert Duran,
salientando o lugar paratópico desta mulher, em
uma visão de Maingueneau sobre o papel do
feminino fatal em contraposição ao masculino.
III. O ETHOS DO CANCIONEIRO DO TANGO
Uma obra de arte expande o próprio universo
enquanto o constrói, demonstrando a necessidade
e a importância de se franquear caminhos para
esse progresso. Estabelece, pois o direito à
existência, uma vez que a narrativa literária é a
própria embriogênese de seu contexto.
Preservando o discurso enquanto gera uma
postura própria no mundo, a obra, como salienta
Jacques Rancière (2009), com suas figuras e
símbolos, encontra-se nas tessituras da relação
entre o pensar e o não-pensar, da presença do
pensamento na materialidade do sensível, do
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inconsciente no consciente e do significante
dentro do irrisório; é o próprio pensamento,
enquanto ação, que impõe-se a uma matéria
passiva. Portanto, há que se aniquilar a ideia de
uma transcendência inumana e fabulosa que
estaria escondida na obra de arte, trazendo-a para
as vias da história, relacionando-a não mais a um
sentido oculto por trás do texto que devesse ser
trazido à tona pelo intérprete, mas, antes,
contrapondo à obra suas próprias condições de
produção.
Fiorin (2007) afirma que o discurso não gera a
consciência, mas esta é gerada, por sua vez,
através dos discursos que são interiorizados pelos
sujeitos nos trajetos de sua existência. O sujeito
assimila e resignifica o mundo através dos
discursos que absorve ao mesmo tempo em que
reproduz esses discursos em sua fala. Sem
pretender estabelecer uma correspondência
mecânica entre a estrutura interna do texto -
enquanto discurso do escritor - e o processo
hermenêutico - como discurso do leitor -
afirmamos, diante do exposto, que a compreensão
interpretativa está, para a leitura, tal que o
discurso está para a enunciação desse mesmo
discurso. Sem pensar nessa dialética da explicação
e da compreensão, tal como salienta Ricouer
(1976), é impossível identificar uma situação
dialógica, haja vista que há a tendência de
sobreposição e transição de uma para a outra. Ao
passo que durante a explicação desdobramos o
âmbito das proposições e significados, na
compreensão, por sua vez, apreendemos
plenamente a totalidade dos grilhões dos sentidos
em um único ato de síntese.
No que diz respeito a uma hermenêutica do
discurso tanguístico, a necessidade de se
interpretar os sistemas sígnicos nas letras dos
tangos emana da forma indireto de como estes
sistemas simbólicos transmitem as experiências
poéticas do que consideramos como sendo o
modo de sentir do ethos tanguero. Experiências
derivadas que são pontes indiretas, expressões
indiretas de vidas psíquicas estranhas. Por isto,
faz-se necessária a empatia, segundo Ricouer
(1976), a transferência de nós mesmos, enquanto
leitores, para a psique do outro; torna-se
importante, enquanto princípio para toda a
compreensão aplica-la às expressões escritas da
vida. A compreensão e o ato interpretativo é, em
um primeiro momento, uma conjectura, como
salienta Ricouer (1976); contudo, torna-se uma
possibilidade de autoconhecimento e conhe-
cimento de mundo proporcionado pelo desvelar
da obra, uma vez que o leitor intérprete
encontrar-se-á no próprio ato da interpretação
que sucede por meio da pós-compreensão: a
recontextualização da obra com o fim de
apropriar-se dela.
A constituição discursiva, segundo Maingueneau
(2006), é entendida a partir da constituição
enquanto uma ação que estabelece sua própria
retificação. O discurso implanta-se sob as próprias
regras emergenciais no interior do interdiscurso,
enquanto estrutura substancial que engendra um
universo discursivo. A enunciação estabelece-se
como dispositivo legitimador do próprio espaço,
promovendo a gênese de um discurso e sua
inscrição dentro de uma instância sócio-histórica.
Isso diz respeito às representações ideológicas de
uma determinada classe ou grupo social, pois a
ideologia, segundo Fiorin (2007), é a visão de
mundo que determinada instância social possui
da realidade e a mesma instância não existe fora
do âmbito da linguagem. Uma formação
ideológica corresponde a uma formação
discursiva cujas figuras e símbolos tornam
possível a concretização de uma específica visão
de mundo.
De acordo com esta perspectiva, a poética do
tango emerge enquanto conjunto discursivo no
interior de um espaço definido de uma
determinada sociedade, na qual a formação
discursiva se expressa como um grupo com suas
próprias especificidades, “sociologicamente
caracterizável” (MAINGUENEAU, 1997, p.54),
porém sem remeter a sua questão discursiva às
questões puramente de classe ou subclasse.
Busca-se, antes, observar que a instituição
discursiva que o engendrou diz respeito ao social
tanto quanto à linguagem ao mesmo tempo,
porque é através desta formação discursiva que o
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indivíduo edifica seu próprio discurso e, do
mesmo modo que a ideologia impõe o
pensamento, a formação discursiva impõe o dizer.
Tanto o tango quanto os responsáveis por sua
produção e reprodução são construídos por um
complexo e práticas institucionais. Esta
instituição discursiva, essa ação de estabelecer,
esse “processo de construção legítima e a
instituição no sentido comum de organização de
práticas e aparelhos” (MAINGUENEAU, 2006,
p.53), compõe tanto a enunciação como também
as estruturas que são a condição da formação
discursiva, assim como seu resultado. Mediante o
movimento através do qual a prática discursiva se
institui, aporta um mundo em seu enunciado e
legitima a cena de enunciação e o lugar de fala que
possibilitaram esta prática discursiva.
O sexo faz parte da natureza e a civilização, a
cultura, funciona apenas como uma ferramenta
contra esta mesma natureza que ameaça,
constantemente, aniquilar os frágeis valores
morais sobre os quais construiu-se as sociedades.
Como aporta Freud, (2010, p.55), “[...] a natureza
se subleva contra nós, imponente, cruel e
implacável, colocando-nos outra vez diante dos
olhos a nossa fraqueza e o nosso desamparo, de
que pensávamos ter escapado graças ao trabalho
da cultura”. Os perigos que a natureza externa,
seja através dos fenômenos naturais, seja através
de espaços ou criaturas, entre outros, sempre
impôs aos humanos, fizeram com que este a
valorizasse, de forma positiva ou negativa. A
perspectiva de cultura socialmente enraizada faz
com que haja uma separação do humano com o
que muitos entendem como natureza a fim de
defendê-lo contra essa natureza da qual ele não se
vê como parte.
A sociedade seria, portanto, uma “frágil barreira
contra a natureza” (PAGLIA, 1992, p.15) e quando
as estruturas que sustentam as bases que servem
de alicerce a todo este racional edifício cultural
ameaçam por ruir, vemos que a natureza não
possui qualquer respeito por esta moral ou ética
forjadas tão somente pela própria subjetividade
humana. A natureza é niilista, não possui sentido
em si mesma e suas leis constantemente
demonstram que não possuem a ordem e a
logicidade que o humano busca, incansavelmente,
desvendar e compreender. A mulher sempre
esteve ligada às questões da natureza, seu ciclo
biológico corresponde com os ciclos naturais das
fases da lua, das estações do ano. Não é sem razão
que as deidades dedicadas à agricultura e à
fertilidade são, em sua maior parte, femininas:
Deméter, Perséfone, Freia, Isis, etc.
Sendo a mulher relacionada à natureza e esta ao
sexo, facilmente se construiria uma ponte entre
mulher e sexo, mulher-sexo, como sinônimos. O
fator sexual sempre intrínseco ao elemento
feminino concede à mulher o domínio de um
reino sombrio, no qual encontra-se o ponto de
contato entre o humano e a natureza da qual
aquele deseja fugir, na qual a moralidade cai por
terra diante dos mais primitivos instintos
biológicos. E se a natureza, por si mesma, é algo
intransponível, pertencente a um âmbito no qual
o humano jamais irá penetrar, o sexo torna-se este
imbrincado descontrole para o qual a civilização
tenta criar mecanismos de defesa a fim de
racionalizar esta força desgovernada da natureza.
Ligada ao sexo, a mulher torna-se, por isso, um
ser mal compreendido e misterioso para o
homem.
Camille Paglia (1992) noz diz que a sociedade
ocidental foi forjada por uma mente apolínia, mas
soçobra sobre forças dionisíacas, e aqui traz dois
conceitos nietzschianos para exemplificar estes
dicotômicos aspectos entre razão e instinto,
civilização e natureza, homem e mulher. Sendo
apolínia, a sociedade tenta, por meio do intelecto,
denominar, classificar e controlar a natureza,
insistindo na individuação dos objetos. Esse
conhecimento racional seria uma porta para
escaparmos ao medo do desconhecido.
Entretanto, o que nos parece belo na natureza “se
limita à fina película do globo sobre o qual nos
amontoamos” e para que possamos observar a
realidade, basta “só arranhar essa película, que
surgirá a feiura daimônica da natureza” (PAGLIA,
1992, p.17). Pois, o que a civilização ocidental
reprime é justamente o ctônico, o dionisíaco, que
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fogem ao controle do apolínio, que são as forças
subterrâneas cegas e desgovernadas.
O mito da mulher fatal insere-se nesta luta
contínua do homem, representante da civilização
e, consequentemente, do sistema patriarcal, o
elemento apolínio, racional e urânico, contra a
mulher, representante da natureza e do
descostume, o elemento dionisíaco, irracional,
ctônico. A mulher é o conduto da irracionalidade e
suas ações estão sempre sob uma névoa ctônica,
sobrepujada pelas forças barbáricas. Como afirma
Paglia (1992, p.18), a mulher confere “crueldade
bruta [...] porque é ela o problema que o gênero
tenta corrigir”:
A evolução do culto da terra para o culto do céu
transfere a mulher para o reino inferior. [...] Os
homens, juntando-se, inventaram a cultura
como uma defesa contra a natureza feminina.
O culto do céu foi o passo mais sofisticado
nesse processo, pois essa transferência do locus
criativos, da terra para o céu é uma passagem
da magia do ventre para a magia da cabeça. E
dessa defensiva magia as cabeça veio a glória
espetacular da civilização masculina [...].
(PAGLIA, 1992, p.20)
No que diz respeito ao Tango, consideremos a
figura do compadrito , esse ethos marginal e 2
picaresco, que está inserido no universo da
narrativa do Tango. O compadrito é o cancioneiro
do Tango, mas também era a denominação
utilizada para aqueles homens que viviam nos
arrabales, de um modo geral, os pobres que não
3
tinham condição para morarem próximos do
centro, assim como também designava aos
homens inclinados ao ócio, predispostos à boemia
(bebida, jogo e mulheres) e que não levavam a
2 Nome derivado de Compadre, que corresponde ao gaucho
argentino que entrou em contato com a civilização urbana.
Na escala social do arrabal, o compadre encarna a honra,
defendendo os mais frágeis contra os desmandos do poder
social. O compadrito tenta imitá-lo, mas o faz mal, pois é
inferior em caráter, personalidade e projeção. O compadrito
é uma figura totalmente urbana, uma espécie de Flaneur, aos
moldes de Walter Benjamin, portenho. 3 Bairros marginais, periféricos, distantes do centro, nos
quais viviam os marginalizados da sociedade portenha, tais
como prostitutas, ladrões, trabalhadores fabris,
desempregados, viciados, boêmios.
vida à sério. Sua forma de trajar, sempre de preto
por sua proximidade com a morte, o modo de
colocar o chapéu (a aba sempre caída sobe o rosto,
seu olhar nunca era visível), seus gestos para
exprimir ideias, seus trejeitos, seu esgar afetado, a
forma como segurava o cigarro, como fumava,
inclusive a maneira como cuspia, entre os dentes,
fazia dele um perfeito malandro portenho, porém
sem a alegria que caracteriza o tipo carioca; o
“malandro” de Buenos Aires era sério,
melancólico e frio. Este senhor podia matar ou
morrer por pura diversão.
O ethos do compadrito legitima-se através do seu
caráter e da sua corporalidade. No Tango, esta
corporalidade também está associada à
diferenciação sexual, uma vez que a figura
feminina, a milonguita , é a contraparte do 4
compadrito, a embreagem paratópica do
cancioneiro. A figura da mulher fatal no Tango é
uma imagem que, com mais força, dominou as
narrativas do Tango. Como salienta Maingueneau
(2006), a mulher fatal do século XIX/XX é a
mulher da cidade, urbana, que bebe, que fuma,
que joga, que canta e dança. No Tango, está
representada pela prostituta que seduz o
cancioneiro e o faz sofrer, o abandona, o trai,
participando do que Maingueneau (2006, p.127)
denomina de mitologia estética. Observemos o
trecho seguinte:
Percanta que me amuraste
en lo mejor de mi vida,
dejándome el alma herida
y espinas en el corazón.
Sabiendo que te quería,
vos eras mi alegría
y mi ensueño abrasador.
Para mí ya no hay consuelo
y es por eso que me encurdelo,
para olvidarme de tu amor.
(Mi noche triste, 1916)
4 Nome derivado de milonga. Diz respeito aos lugares nos
quais se dançava Tango. Milonguita ou Milonguera , eram as
mulheres que frequentavam estes lugares e bailavam Tango.
Ao homem também pode-se denomina-lo de milonguero.
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Como podemos observar, o eu-lírico destina à
mulher uma mensagem pautada pela melancolia,
sentimento próprio de sociedades patriarcais,
acusando-a de ser a responsável pelo seu estado
de derrocada, de ruína, pois o abandonou sem
levar em consideração suas emoções, não
valorizando o sentimento que o sujeito
enunciador possuía e que, para o código
patriarcal, por si só deveria ser motivo suficiente
para que ela o apreciasse, como se a mulher
tivesse por obrigação dever homenagens aos
sentimentos do homem e, ao não fazê-lo, recairia
no mito da mulher fatal , responsável pela ruína,
pela tentação do homem. O eu-lírico entregou-se a
uma vida de dissipação, embriagando-se para
esquecer o amor da ingrata que não soube
valorizar seu sentimento. Vejamos outro trecho:
Yo la quise, muchachos,
y la quiero y jamás yo la podré olvidar;
yo me emborracho por ella
y ella quién sabe qué hará.
Eche, mozo, más champán,
que todo mi dolor,
bebiendo lo he de ahogar;
y si la ven,
muchachos, díganle
que ha sido por su amor
que mi vida ya se fue.
(La última copa, 1926)
Encontramos mais uma vez a dissipação
masculina através do álcool que, a seu modo,
também pode ser considerado um suicídio, pois
no Tango, não se matam apenas aqueles que se
matam, mas também aqueles que buscam uma
vida de dissolução física e moral. O eu-lírico,
tomado pela melancolia, pelo sentimento de luto
não superado, afirma categoricamente que se
embriaga por aquela mulher que jamais soube seu
amor apreciar. Em outras palavras, seu estado de
dor e de dilapidação deve-se exclusivamente à
ingratidão de uma femme fatale, responsável por
sua ruína, sua derrocada. O macho, pertencente
ao dia, ao sol, à luz, sucumbiu diante da noite, da
lua e das trevas e é na escuridão que permanece,
pois como não mata aquela que solapou seu
código social, não é capaz de reerguer-se, de
retornar à luz. Permanece no reino obscuro da
mulher-sexo, remoendo suas mágoas.
O mito da mulher fatal polemiza e dramatiza, em
um único ato, a própria gênese da guerra dos
sexos. É a própria imagem do feminino
destruidor, responsável pela queda do homem e
da humanidade, relativamente a Camille Paglia,
seria as forças dionisíacas ctônicas femininas da
natureza invadindo e dominando a instância
apolínia urânica civilizacional masculina. O
grande adversário de Apolo, o deus da luz, da
razão, do másculo, do celeste, era Dioniso, o deus
das trevas, do caos, do feminino, do ctônico;
enquanto Apolo era a lei moral, o falo, Dioniso era
a natureza líquida, o útero. Não por acaso
encontramos mulheres como as seguidoras de
Dioniso. A femme fatale é justamente este aspecto
daimônico da mulher e sua proximidade com a
natureza, pois o sexo é um domínio obscuro,
constituindo, assim, o que Paglia (1992, p.24)
chama de “extrapolação de realidades biológicas”
na mulher. O sexo seria considerado, portanto,
uma drenagem da energia do macho pela
plenitude do feminino. Analisemos outro tango:
Tomo y obligo, mándese un trago,
que hoy necesito el recuerdo matar.
Sin un amigo, lejos del pago,
quiero en su pecho mi pena volcar.
Beba conmigo, y si se empaña,
de vez en cuando, mi voz al cantar,
no es que llore porque me engaña;
Yo sé que un hombre no debe llorar.
(Tomo y obligo, 1931)
Percebemos a mesma repetição de uma
caracterização feminina trágica, porque
destruidora do elemento masculino e, portanto,
do patriarcal, que colapsa ao não conseguir se
conter, se controlar, racionalizar diante do
ctônico, do natural, da mulher-sexo-natureza.
Novamente temos a presença de um discurso
melancólico de um eu-lírico em luto, porém que
não supera a perda e isso caracterizaria o
sentimento de melancolia e atira contra seu
contrincante, a mulher, a mágoa de ter sido
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abandonado. E outra vez percebemos o arquétipo
da mulher fatal, destruidora, causadora da
tentação e da derrocada do homem. Em outro
trecho do mesmo tango, encontramos ainda:
Si los pastos conversaran, esta pampa le diría
de qué modo la quería, con qué fiebre la adoré.
Cuántas veces de rodillas, tembloroso, yo me he
hincado
bajo el árbol deshojado donde un día la besé.
Y hoy al verla envilecida y a otros brazos
entregada,
fue para mí una puñalada y de celos me cegué.
Y le juro, todavía no consigo convencerme
como pude contenerme y ahí nomás no la maté.
Observemos que o eu-lírico, a todo momento,
deseja vilipendiar o caráter da mulher, que o
traiu, atacando a ela através de si mesmo. Ao
sobrevalorizar suas próprias ações, “de qué modo
la quería, con que fiebre la adoré”, “cuántas veces
de rodilla yo me he hincado”, busca, por outro
lado, enfatizar a indiferença feminina, que
constitui a total falta de respeito que a natureza
tem pela moral humana, a desordem dionisíaca
atormentado a ordem apolínia, e, através disto,
pretende justificar o desejo de assassinar este
elemento, pois a cultura busca justamente, como
analisado mais acima, criar ferramentas para
proteger-se da natureza e, consequentemente, da
mulher. Para finalizar, ainda no mesmo tango,
terminamos com o que seria talvez uma máxima
falocrática de desprezo em relação às mulheres e a
tentativa de erguer novamente este elemento
masculino subjugado pela treva e levantá-lo à luz
sem a presença ainda do assassinato:
Tomo y obligo, mándese un trago;
de las mujeres mejor no hay que hablar.
Todas, amigo, dan muy mal pago
y hoy mi experiencia lo puede afirmar.
Siga un consejo, no se enamore
y si una vuelta le toca hocicar,
fuerza, canejo, sufra y no llore
que un hombre macho no debe llorar.
Percebemos que, mesmo a civilização querendo
fugir desta natureza que a envergonha, que a faz
rastejar, como inferimos do verbo hocicar, de
hocico, o nariz do cachorro, esta mesma
civilização racional sucumbe sempre ao irracional,
ao dionisíaco, quando o narrador diz, justamente,
“no se enamore, y si una vuelta le toca hocicar”,
mas que, mesmo então, não permita ser
controlado por esta natureza baixa, terrestre, vil,
destruidora, pois que um “hombre macho” nunca
deve chorar, jamais deve curvar-se para a terra,
olhar para baixo, não deve permitir o triunfo deste
feminino-natureza-sexo que o coloca diante de
sua própria natureza instintiva biológica que o
degrada. Essa permanência do mito da mulher
fatal nas sociedades diz respeito, como afirma
Paglia (1992), ao fardo do sexo, do erótico sob os
quais desandam ética, moral, religião. O sexo é o
calcanhar de Aquiles das civilizações e, por isso,
mesmo, recebeu tratamento de choque em todas
as sociedades e é através do sexo que a natureza
ctônica invade o âmbito da civilização racional.
Nas narrativas do Tango que apresentam esta
mulher fatal não somente contam uma história,
como também mostram e constituem sua própria
urgência. De acordo com Maingueneau (2006,
p.127), o mito da mulher fatal destaca
A semelhança do artista e da mulher por meio
de suas figuras paratópicas exemplares, o
boêmio e o saltimbanco. A do boêmio-boêmia
privilegia a questão da inserção social e do
modo de vida e a do saltimbanco acentua
primordialmente a dimensão da dissimulação,
do disfarce, do espetáculo. Tal como o artista, a
mulher pertence à sociedade sem lhe pertencer
de fato: tanto para ele como para ela, a inserção
só pode ter caráter paratópico. Eles ocupam
lugares, mas sempre vão além deles, sem no
entanto ser cidadãos de algum “outro lugar”.
[...] O artista, a mulher, o boêmio, o
saltimbanco ameaçam a estabilidade de um
mundo tópico; sua rejeição deve reforçar a
coesão da sociedade. Mas não deixa de haver
nisso certo sentimento ambivalente: os
boêmios, como vimos, são ao mesmo tempo
santos e malditos, portadores do Absoluto e de
dejetos.
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A mulher, no Tango, encontra-se em um espaço
paratópico por ser mulher e por ser prostituta,
esta sendo considerada o mais baixo nível da
escala social. A prostituição baixa, naturalizada,
realística será tema constante dos tangos,
preenchendo quase sua totalidade. O homem
boêmio abandonado emergirá nas narrativas com
a melancolia, a nostalgia e a tragicidade que lhe
serão inerentes. O mundo da prostituição está
ligado ao surgimento da miserabilidade
existencial, uma condição que, segundo Bataille
(1987), teria levado aos sujeitos humanos a
romperem os interditos morais e sociais
justamente por sua aproximação com a concepção
do dionisíaco.
A prostituta, degradada pelo pagamento, pela
objetificação de si, a coisificação de seu
ser-no-mundo em sua facticidade, é rebaixada ao
nível dos animais dentro da sociedade. De acordo
com Bataille (1987, p.88-89), ela suscita a mesma
repugnância que a civilização sentiria diante de
uma porca:
A extrema miséria isenta os homens dos
interditos que criam neles a humanidade: ela
não os isenta como o faz a transgressão: uma
espécie de rebaixamento, imperfeito, sem
dúvida, dá livre curso ao impulso animal. O
rebaixamento não é mais o retorno á
animalidade. O mundo da transgressão, que
englobou o conjunto dos homens, diferiu
essencialmente da animalidade: acontece o
mesmo com o mundo limitado do
rebaixamento. [...] As palavras grosseiras que
designam os órgãos, os produtos ou os atos
sexuais introduzem o mesmo rebaixamento.
Essas palavras são interditas, pois geralmente é
proibido nomear esses órgãos. Nomeá-los de
uma maneira desabrida faz passar da
transgressão à indiferença que põe num
mesmo plano o profano e o mais sagrado. A
prostitua de baixo nível está no último grau do
rebaixamento. Ela poderia não ser menos
indiferente aos interditos que o animal, mas,
impotente para chegar á perfeita indiferença,
ela sabe dos interditos que os outros observam:
e não só ela é decaída, mas também lhe é dada
a possibilidade de conhecer sua queda. Ela se
sabe humana. Mesmo sem ter vergonha, ela
pode ter consciência de viver como os porcos.
A mulher não pode emergir fora de sua relação
assassina com a figura masculina, pois este
representa a figura paterna, o patriarcado,
enquanto a mulher simboliza a quebra desta
estrutura ilusória de controle. A especificidade do
mito da mulher fatal, principalmente no quer diz
respeito ao Tango, é transformar este gesto
assassino em espetáculo, apresentando uma
cenografia patética da derrocada e do fracasso de
uma figura masculina. A narrativa procurará,
dessa forma, erguer a moral do masculino
decaído, colocando-o novamente de pé. Sendo
assim, como aporta Maingueneau (2006), o
narrador buscará superar esta crise provocada
pela figura da mulher e reparando os prejuízos
causados à figura patriarcal.
Ele não desfaz o feitiço, o encanto mágico da
mulher, por meio da obra, não opõe o antídoto
ao veneno, mas volta contra a mulher a arma
que assegurou a perda do homem comum. [...]
Claro que a mulher fatal desvia
irremediavelmente o homem, mas esse destino
inexorável se inscreve numa obra, num
rigoroso encadeamento de imagens, de
observações, de palavras. Por meio da repetição
obstinada da história do homem mortalmente
seduzido, o autor manifesta, paradoxalmente
sua inde- pendência com relação à mulher.
(MAINGUENEAU, 2006, p.128).
Após a mulher fazer colapsar o sistema patriarcal,
o elemento masculino, no Tango, não tem mais
condições de retornar à ordem anterior, por isso
realiza a obra narrativa a fim de exaltar a força do
feminino apenas para melhor submetê-lo e
sujeitá-lo às cruéis leis do código de mundo
masculino, neste caso, do compadrito.
Desempenhando o fracasso da relação
homem/mulher, o ethos constrói a cena que
legitimará suas ações em relação ao elemento
feminino. O Discurso do Tango é viril e duro,
cruel, patriarcal e violento, não mascara a
realidade na qual está inserida a mulher. O ethos
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não cinde o texto e a corporalidade, o mundo
representado e a enunciação que o deflagra. Neste
sentido, podemos observar também uma
similitude deste apolínio/dionisíaco de Camille
Paglia (1992) no que diz respeito à construção do
imaginário feito do Gilbert Durand (2002), no
qual ele acreditava haver dois regimes, o diurno e
o noturno, da imagem.
Gilbert Durand (2002) compreende as imagens
simbólicas como parte do imaginário que, por sua
vez, é tido como o “conjunto das imagens e
relações de imagens que constitui o capital
pensado do homo sapiens [...], o grande
denominador fundamental onde se vêm encontrar
todas as criações do pensamento humano”
(DURAND, 2002, p.18). Nessa perspectiva,
Durand confere aos mitos um grande e
importante papel na conjuntura do imaginário,
sendo este uma combinação de imagem e símbolo.
Sobre o mito, Durand (2002, p.62-63) nos diz
que:
Entenderemos por mito um sistema dinâmico
de símbolos, arquétipos e esquemas, sistema
dinâmico que, sob o impulso de um esquema,
tende a compor-se em narrativa. O mito é um
esboço de racionalização, dado que utiliza o fio
do discurso, no qual os símbolos se resolvem
em palavras e os arquétipos em idéias.
Durand (2002) aporta uma abordagem às
imagens do ponto de vista dos significados
intrínsecos às próprias imagens. Essas imagens
estão agrupadas em duas estruturas denominadas
de regimes diurno e noturno. Esses alicerces
simbólicos não são, entretanto, “agrupamentos
rígidos de formas imutáveis” (DURAND, 2002,
p.64), mesmo que o regime diurno queira excluir
o noturno, embora não consiga, como observamos
nos tangos analisados acima. Vale ressaltar que a
civilização ocidental, apolínia e racional, tendeu a
enfatizar o Regime Diurno. No Regime Diurno
encontram-se antíteses que objetivam predominar
sobre simbologias reconhecidamente noturnas. O
Regime Noturno, por sua vez, tolera os aspectos
do imaginário categorizados como diurnos.
Assim sendo, o Regime Diurno abriga tudo que é
solar, urânico, a ordem, a disciplina, a moral, a
espada, o falo. No Tango, isso diz respeito ao
próprio ethos do compadrito, uma voz masculina
que participa do código do sistema patriarcal. A
fala do Tango é falocrática, pois é um eu-lírico
masculino que diz, e não só isso, possui um modo
de dizê-lo. Entretanto, o compadrito encontra-se
em um lugar de fala paratópico, marginal, o
arrabal, ambiente sujo, miserável, obscuro,
malcheiroso, apinhado de cortiços nos quais se
debruavam marginais, prostitutas, boêmios,
ladrões, cafetões, viciados, toda a sociedade
excluída da sociedade cêntrica, atirada à periferia,
não querida nem digerida pela civilização
burguesa portenha.
O arrabal confere a quem pertence ao seu mundo
uma pesada e cruel carga social, pois diz respeito
ao que está fora, abaixo, às margens, excluído,
seria o Regime Noturno, as forças dionisíacas; ao
contrário do centro, que refere-se ao que
encontra-se dentro, acima, no meio, incluído, o
Regime Diurno, as forças apolínias. O arrabal
representaria, dentro do imaginário de Durand, o
Regime Noturno, da boemia, da desordem, do
caos, do obscuro, do dionisíaco, do ctônico e da
criação literária. O Regime Noturno é o reino do
feminino e, portanto, esta instância engloba o
mundo do Tango, falando-nos de um discurso
falocrático que, no entanto, está subjugado pelo
elemento feminino, a natureza sem regras e
instintiva aniquilando as finas pilastras de um
mundo racional ilusório e vulnerável. O Regime
diurno é a ascensão, o poder paterno, o
masculino; o Regime Noturno diz respeito às
trevas, o descenso, ao materno, ao feminino. E,
como afirmou Maingueneau (2006), este Regime
Diurno, dominando pelo patriarcal, colapsado
pelo Regime Noturno, reino do matriarcal, tenta
reabilitar o elemento masculino decaído na
escuridão, deseja levantá-lo em direção ao celeste
e, no Tango, isto é conseguido através do
assassinato da figura feminina, da negação
peremptória do feminino e da natureza.
Analisemos outro trecho no qual temos um
eu-lírico que começa por narrar sua história:
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amava a uma mulher, que por ela fez-se honrado e
bom marido e que, após casar-se, teve um
garotinho que veio coroar sua vida de ditas, de pai
de família honrado e trabalhador. Porém.
Pero una noche de Reyes,
cuando a mi hogar regresaba,
comprobé que me engañaba
con el amigo más fiel.
Y ofendido en mi amor propio
quise vengar el ultraje,
lleno de ira y coraje
¡sin compasión los maté!
(Noche de reyes, 1926)
Podemos verificar, através do próprio discurso do
sujeito enunciador, a tentativa de ascender esse
homem que sucumbiu ao abismo do irracional, a
mulher. Ao ver-se traído, aniquila o elemento
responsável por fazer ruir o sistema patriarcal e
podemos notar que a alusão à felicidade anteriore,
ao caráter feminino, serviram apenas para melhor
submetê-la ao duro código patriarcal, como
salientado por Maingueneau (2006). A mulher
fatal nos remete à Lilith que, sem consentir a se
submeter a Adão, desafia o homem e Deus e
simplesmente os abandona. O que é Lilith, senão,
como nos diz Martha Robles (2013, p.35) “uma
vontade poderosa que não se dobra diante da
pressão masculina e prefere a transgressão à
vassalagem”? Lilith passou ao imaginário como
esta femme fatale, esta sombra negra e cruel que
se pretendeu em pé de igualdade com o homem.
No mesmo tango temos, mais adiante, a reflexão
do eu-lírico, em um dos trechos mais
contundentes que poderia produzir o sistema
patriarcal:
Qué cuadro compañeros, no quiero recordarlo,
me llena de vergüenza, de odio y de rencor.
¡De qué vale ser bueno! Si aparte de vengarme
clavaron en mi pecho la flecha del dolor.
Por eso compañero, como hoy es día de Reyes,
los zapatitos el nene afuera los dejó.
Espera un regalito y no sabe que a la madre
por falsa y por canalla, ¡su padre la mató!
O eu-lírico sente-se envergonhado pela situação
na qual ele mesmo se pôs, pois recaiu no buraco
obscuro do útero materno, uma vez que a femme
fatale nada mais é do que uma hipóstase do
arquétipo da Grande Mãe, porém sua face
destruidora, mortífera, uma espécie de ventre que,
ao invés de dar à luz, o engole, o retorno aonde
tudo começa, o túmulo também é uma espécie de
útero para uma outra existência, se há. O ódio e o
rancor aos quais alude o narrador diz respeito aos
sentimentos do racional diante do caos, da frágil
proteção apolínia diante da devastadora força
dionisíaca. É justamente isto que suscita a
natureza para a civilização: ódio, temor, repulsa.
Segundo Freud (2010, p.57), a cultura consiste em
tentar humanizar a natureza (o sexo, a mulher)
em uma tentativa de torna-la palatável e,
portanto, passível de controle por parte do
homem:
Forças e destinos pessoais são inacessíveis,
permanecem eternamente estranhos. Porém,
se nos elementos agitam paixões tal como na
própria alma; se mesmo a norte não é algo
espontâneo, mas o ato de violência de uma
vontade maléfica; se, na natureza, o homem
está cercado em toda parte por entes iguais
àqueles que conhece em sua própria
sociedade, então ele respira aliviado, sente-se
em casa em meio a coisas inquietantes e pode
elaborar psiquicamente a sua angustia sem
sentido.
A femme fatale, esta degredada filha de Lilith, é a
pesada mão que Martha Robles (2013) observa
nas brigas matrimoniais, nos desejos femininos
insatisfeitos, nos divórcios, na tentativa de
emancipação feminina e na punição que esta sofre
quando tenta desafiar as normas impostas e
legitimadas por discursos religiosos, míticos,
sociais, culturais, psicológicos, filosóficos e
históricos, pois
Lilith se aloja em cada mulher que imagina ser
possível a verdadeira equidade, em cada mulher
que perturba os sonhos e devaneios dos homens,
naquela que menciona o inefável nome de Deus
não para acatar seus desígnios, mas para salientar
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o alento transformador de sua própria
criatividade. Lilith é, por isso tudo, a paixão da
noite, a criatura mais temida e o anjo que vaga
com a esperança de restaurar a ordem
transtornada, apesar de toda dor e de todo
esquecimento. (ROBLES, 2013, p.38)
Como podemos perceber, a mulher, assim como
qualquer outra categoria social entrecortada pelas
representações de uma coletividade, pelo
imaginário coletivo, recebe um conjunto de
características socialmente estereotipadas.
Entretanto, como acentua Maingueneau (2007) é
importante que seja enfatizado que o estereótipo
mais frequentemente adotado para o elemento
feminino é o que denigre a sua imagem. As
declarações a este respeito proliferam em muitas
culturas, enquanto que a parte masculina
permanece praticamente incólume. Por esta
razão, provavelmente, não exista um mito do
homem fatal , que aborde os delitos masculinos e,
certamente, como ironicamente percebe
Maingueneau (2007), essa lacuna não se deve a
que os homens não causem infelicidade às
mulheres. Isso é um sintoma de desigualdade que
beneficia aos homens e é a dominação masculina
que coloca a mulher no extremo oposto das
especulações. Sobre esta questão, Maingueneau
(2007, p.38) aporta que:
Défini par des statuts et des frontières, l’homme
se trouve aux prises avec un féminin qui se joue
de toute catégorisation. Contre ce féminin dont
l’altérité semble échapper en quelque sorte à
elle-même, il circonscrit la féminité dont il a
besoin pour assurer une identité imaginaire. Il ne
s’agit pas pour autant de restituer le “vrai” visage
du féminin, as “vraie” nature, libérée des
stéréotypes masculins : l’impossible “nature” du
féminin déjoue précisément l’opposition entre la
“nature” et l’ ”artifice”, l’ ”être” et le “simulacre”,
la féminité que reconnaît l’homme se tisse de
stéréotypes dont le féminin se joue. La féminité
prend figure dans ces stéréotypes, mais le
féminin les arrache à toute adhérence. Etre
femme, c’est ainsi “savoir” d’une certaine façon
qu’on n’est pas véritablement de ce monde-là que
structurent les stéréotypes, sans être pour autant
d’un autre qui tracerait d’autres partages,
d’autres catégories. Si le féminin est en excès du
monde de l’homme, ce n’est pas par quelque
surabondance d’être qui déborderait de toutes
parts ses catégories réductrices, mais par une
altération qui empêche la femme de se réduire à
une féminité qui lui donne pourtant les visages -
jamais d’emprunt - par lesquels elle intervient
dans le monde de l’homme.
O que podemos analisar é uma certa urgência em
atribuir um lugar à mulher e essa categorização,
como vimos, diz respeito à visão de mundo
apolínia que percebe na denominação e no
conhecimento uma forma de poder e controle.
Portanto, categorizar a mulher atribuindo-lhe um
patamar, ainda que o mais baixo, é dominá-la, ter
poder sobre ela, domar esta instância dionisíaca
que constantemente o ameaça. Essa dicotomia
masculina, apolínio/dionisíaco, o apolínio como
sinônimo de bem e o dionisíaco como o mal, faz
com que o homem associe o mal fora de casa e,
portanto, essa assimilação da prostituta com a
mulher má. No Tango essa questão fica bastante
visível, uma vez que as mulheres do Tango não
eram moças de família, as faces de Eva, os
arquétipos de uma Penélope, como sublinha
Brandão (1989, p.39), “caseira, calada, discreta,
diligente, laboriosa, fiel, econômica, submissa...”,
mas mulheres da vida, putas, pois puta é toda
aquela mulher que ainda não foi devidamente
domesticada pelo sistema patriarcal.
O discurso pornográfico, criado pelo homem,
nada mais é do que externalizar o interno ctônico
feminino, como se pretendesse lançar uma luz
apolínia na escuridão dionisíaca. A mulher é
posta, assim, sobre um palco e, não importa o que
ela faça, ela sempre parecerá ao homem longe
demais, inacessível demais, um mistério que o
amedronta e essa fala extrema masculina
encontra sua expressão no próprio ethos que
enuncia. É criado um protótipo feminino que é
colocado dentro dos papéis pré-concebidos pela
sociedade patriarcal machista como sendo papéis
naturais da mulher: os cuidados com a beleza
estética, o casamento, a maternidade. Segundo
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Beauvoir (2016), desde pequena a mulher aprende
que, para agradar aos homens, sendo este o
primordial dever visto ser apenas um objeto sem
qualquer importância existencial, é preciso ser
bela, compassiva, compreensiva, obediente e
afetuosa e a mulher procura incansavelmente
parecer-se com a imagem que os homens
idealizam dela, com este mito do eterno feminino.
Fantasia e tenta comprara-se aos estereótipos que
o homem cria para que ela possa espelhar-se, haja
vista que estes modelos não foram criados pelas
mulheres. Desse modo, a passividade que deve
caracterizar a mulher é um traço desenvolvido ao
longo de sua educação para um ser-mulher.
IV. CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS
Sexo e violência sempre estarão de mãos dadas
dentro do tango. Segundo Bataille (1987, p.48), o
desejo de matar pode parecer tão exigente, na
realidade, quanto o sexual. É notório que no
Tango sexo e morte estão unidos, a prostituição e
o crime passional. O que é o tango senão a história
de uma prostituta e de um homem que se
apaixona por ela? A relação extraconjugal sempre
foi permitida ao homem e o compadrito tem por
dever manter o modelo de masculinidade dentro
do mundo do Tango.
A femme fatale, no Tango, está representada pela
figura da prostituta, a mulher proibida pelo
discurso social e, ao mesmo tempo, necessária
para que os homens pudessem dar vazão ao que
não podiam fazer com as esposas, mulheres de
família. O tango não era dançado por estas
últimas, apenas pelas mulheres de vida airada.
Mulher alguma fora dos conventillos e dos bordéis
dançariam um ritmo tão pecaminoso e obsceno. O
erotismo fora transformado em pecado pelo
cristianismo, porém sobrevivia em um mundo que
não conhecia o pecado ou o julgava um mal
imprescindível para o sistema. Era a
sobrevivência do dionisíaco dentro do apolínio e a
impotência deste diante do poder caótico e
aniquilador da natureza. E se levarmos em
consideração o mundo imperativamente
masculino do Tango, o crime passional, a defesa
da honra, o absolutismo do homem eram
exigências morais e comportamentais e serviam
de justificativa para o feminicídio. De acordo com
Bataille (1987, p.48):
O desejo de matar está para o interdito do
homicídio como o desejo de uma atividade sexual
para o complexo de interditos que a limita. A
atividade sexual não é proibida senão em casos
determinados, o mesmo acontecendo com o
homicídio: se o interdito que se lhe opõe é
formulado de uma maneira mais geral e mais
grosseira que os interditos sexuais, ele se limita,
como estes últimos, a reduzir a possibilidade de
matar em certas situações. Ele é formulado de
uma maneira muito simples: “Não matarás”. E é
verdade que ele é universal, mas está
evidentemente subentendido: “Salvo em caso de
guerra, e em outras condições mais ou menos
previstas pelo corpo social”. De modo que ele é o
paralelo quase perfeito do interdito sexual que se
anuncia: “Só haverá intercurso carnal – no
casamento”, ao qual evidentemente, se
acrescenta: “ou em certos casos previstos pelo
costume”.
Como percebemos, o mito da mulher fatal denota
uma estereotipação do feminino como elemento
destruidor, uma hipóstase da Grande Mãe que
devora seus filhos, o ventre escuro para o qual
tudo há de retornar. Essa femme fatale está ligada
às forças dionisíacas da natureza, do ctônico,
como observamos em Camille Paglia (1992), em
contraposição à racionalidade apolínia da
civilização e da cultura construídas pelo elemento
masculino. Vimos também como a caracterização
do imaginário pensada por Gilbert Duran,
categorizada em duas instâncias, o Regime
Diurno, masculino, urânico, ativo e o Regime
Noturno, feminino, ctônico, passivo, dialoga com
as teorias das personas sexuais levantadas por
Paglia.
Analisamos, em seguida, como estes dois âmbitos
podem ser compreendidos levando-se em
consideração as letras dos tangos argentinos,
enfatizando o lugar paratópico do qual o ethos do
cancioneiro se dirige aos seus destinatários e a
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The compadrito’s discursive ethos in the argentinean tango and the myth of Femme Fatale
construção arquetípica deste feminino fatal,
causador da destruição masculina, responsável
pelo colapso do sistema patriarcal e que deve, por
isso mesmo, ser exaltado para melhor sofrer a
punição deste código de conduta falocrático. O
discurso do Tango edifica-se como uma fala
masculina que visa estabelecer um lugar ao
feminino, um lugar que, assim como o próprio
arrabal, está abaixo, fora, ainda que não excluído,
porém submetido ao centro apolínio e masculino.
Percebemos que, o poder da fêmea interpenetra a
sociedade e esta encontra-se subordinada às suas
forças. O feminino é tanto criador como
destruidor, seu caráter ambivalente de vida/morte
representa a lâmina da natureza, cortante e cruel.
Ainda que a sociedade, em seu aspecto apolínio,
dentro do Regime Diurno, tente transcender a
natureza, o elemento dionisíaco da mesma, o
Regime Noturno, sempre o engloba e o submete.
Daí Borges (1974) ter definido o Tango como a
comedie humaine de Buenos Aires, um aspecto
sarcástico de humor negro em meio às crueldades
da natureza, pois esta, como salienta Paglia
(1992), estará sempre puxando o tapete debaixo
de nossos mais ínfimos ideais de moral.
REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
1. BATAILLE, George. O Erotismo. Tradução de
Antônio Carlos Viana. Porto Alegre: L & PM,
1987.
2. BEAUVOIR, Simone. O Segundo Sexo.
Tradução de Sérgio Milliet. 3. ed. Rio de
Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 2016.
3. BORGES, Jorge Luis. Obras Completas.
Buenos Aires: Emecé Editores, 1974.
4. BRANDÃO, Junito de Souza. Helena – O
eterno feminino. Petrópolis, RJ: Vozes, 1989.
5. CARUSO, Juan Andrés. La última copa.
Buenos Aires, Odeon, 1926. 02’46’’. Disponível
em: http://www.todotango.com/ Acesso em:
22/05/2018.
6. CONTURSI, Pascual; CASTRIOTA, Samuel. Mi
noche triste. Buenos Aires, Odeon, 1916.
03’22’’. Disponível em: http:// www.todotango.
com/Acessoem:22/05/2018.
7. CURI, Jorge; MAFFIA, Pedro. Noche de Reyes.
Buenos Aires ,Odeon ,1926 .02’20’’ .Disponível
em: http://www.todotango.com/Acesso em:
22/05/2018.
8. DURAND, Gilbert. As estruturas antro-
pológicas do imaginário – Introdução à
arquetipologia geral. Tradução de Hélder
Godinho. 3. ed. São Paulo: Martins Fontes,
2002.
9. ELIADE, Mircea. Aspectos do Mito. Tradução
de Manuela Torres. Lisboa, Portugal:
Edições70, 1963.
10. FREUD, Sigmundo. O Futuro de uma Ilusão.
Tradução de Renato Zwick. Porto Alegre, RS:
L&PM, 2010.
11. GARDEL, Carlos; ROMERO, Manuel. Tomo y
Obligo. Buenos Aires, Odeon, 1931. 02’06’’.
Disponível em: http://www.todotango.com/
Acesso em: 22/05/2018.
12. MAINGUENEAU, Dominique. Discurso
Literário. Tradução de Adail Sobral. São Paulo:
Contexto, 2006.
13. Stéréotyper le Féminin: entre le Doxique et
l’Esthétique. Degrés, Bruxelles, n. 117, v. 32.
2004, b (1-25). In: Estudos da Língua(gem),
Vitória da Conquista, v. 5, n. 1, p.35-61. Jun.
2007.
14. PAGLIA, Camille. Personas Sexuais – Arte e
Decadência de Nefertiti a Emily Diockinson.
Tradução de Marcos Santarrita. 4. ed. São
Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1992.
15. SARTRE, Jean-Paul. O Ser e o Nada. Tradução
de Paulo Perdigão. 21. ed. Petrópolis, RJ:
Vozes, 2012.
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The compadrito’s discursive ethos in the argentinean tango and the myth of Femme Fatale
382U
LJP Copyright ID: 573336Print ISSN: 2515-5784Online ISSN: 2515-5792
London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
ABSTRACT
Scan to know paper details andauthor's profile
Library user Education Service: A Synthesis of Federal Colleges of Education Kano and Zaria
Nigeria
Abbas Hamisu
Keywords: academic library, college, library user education, nigeria, professional library staff.
Classification: For Code: 339999
Language: English
Library user education service is important. While this vital program of the academic library remains
significant, students use of the library have proven poor to some extent, for example, ineffective use of
library resources which is directly linked to vain library user education students receive. Therefore, the
objective of this study was to study the effectiveness of library user education services in increasing library
usage in FCE Kano and FCE Zaria, specifically, finding out if there exist variation in schemes of library user
education practice in the two institutions. The professional library staffs of the colleges were used as
sample of the study, wherein, a questionnaire was designed to collect data from them. Data collected were
analyzed in descriptive and inferential statistics of frequency/percentage and non-parametric test of Mann
Whitney. Findings of the study indicated that, a type of library user education service adopted by the
academic libraries of FCE Kano and FCE Zaria was a ‘traditional user education service’, embracing in
common ‘library orientation for first year students’, and ‘subject oriented instruction’. One of the
recommendations made included, inculcation of ‘Literature searching for final year student’ as a crucial
library user education scheme for both FCE Kano and FCE Zaria.
© 2019. Abbas Hamisu. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Library user Education Service: A Synthesis of Federal Colleges of Education Kano and Zaria,
Nigeria Abbas Hamisu
___________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Library user education service is important.
While this vital program of the academic library
remains significant, students use of the library
have proven poor to some extent, for example,
ineffective use of library resources which is
directly linked to vain library user education
students receive. Therefore, the objective of this
study was to study the effectiveness of library
user education services in increasing library
usage in FCE Kano and FCE Zaria, specifically,
finding out if there exist variation in schemes of
library user education practice in the two
institutions. The professional library staffs of the
colleges were used as sample of the study,
wherein, a questionnaire was designed to collect
data from them. Data collected were analyzed in
descriptive and inferential statistics of
frequency/percentage and non-parametric test
of Mann Whitney. Findings of the study indicated
that, a type of library user education service
adopted by the academic libraries of FCE Kano
and FCE Zaria was a ‘traditional user education
service’, embracing in common ‘library
orientation for first year students’, and ‘subject
oriented instruction’. One of the
recommendations made included, inculcation of
‘Literature searching for final year student’ as a
crucial library user education scheme for both
FCE Kano and FCE Zaria.
Keywords: academic library, college, library user
education, nigeria, professional library staff.
Author: College Library, Federal College of Education Zaria. [email protected], +2347061636169
I. INTRODUCTION
The usefulness of library user education in higher
institutions of learning cannot be over
emphasized, although some scholars were against
the user education program. For example, Bessler
(1990) believes ‘the libraries that concentrate
their resources on collections and services that
patrons want will be more successful than those
that focus their energy on instructing the patrons,
and that perhaps users do know what id for them
and that is service, not instruction’; Eadie (1990)
supported her assertion that ‘user education came
into being not because users asked for it but
because librarians thought it would be good for
them’. But this perception of the two authors is
not true to majority in the library profession. Aina
(2004) is one of those views that user education is
a literacy service which emphasis that users are to
acquire skills that will enable them search for
information independently on any aspect of
knowledge using traditional and electronic means.
Prytherch (2005) refers to user education as ‘a
program of information provided by libraries to
users, to enable them to make more efficient,
independent use of the library's stock and
services, and program of user education might
include tours, lectures, workshops and the
provision of support materials. All the same,
Ogunmodede and Emeahara (2010) viewed user
education as ‘a library provision service in order
to equip a user with enough knowledge on the use
of the library which enables the user to use the
library resources effectively and efficiently’. Credit
to these authors definitions, in other words, user
education is an instruction given by librarians
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Library User Education Service: A Synthesis of Federal Colleges of Education Kano and Zaria, Nigeria
[email protected]/ +2347061636169
one-on-one or in group to users for the purpose of
self-dependent and excellent usage of library
resources and or services, especially provided by
academic libraries.
II. ACADEMIC LIBRARIES
Aina (2004) explained academic libraries as
follows: ‘academic libraries are libraries that are
attached to post-secondary institutions’. There-
fore, the academic library is a library by type
established in institutions of higher learning, such
as colleges of education, polytechnics and
universities. Holton, Vaden, and Williams, J.
(2006) observed the academic library as an entity
in a post-secondary institution that provides all of
the following: an organized collection of printed
or other materials, or a combination thereof; a
staff trained to provide and interpret such
materials as required to meet the informational,
cultural, recreational, or educational needs of
clientele; an established schedule in which
services of the staff are available to clientele; and
the physical facilities necessary to support such a
collection, staff, and schedule. This later
definition encompasses broad general role of the
academic library. However, if the library
collections, staff, and schedules in academic
libraries are readily available and not used
effectively, academic libraries hence become
nothing but like the adage “a donkey with loaded
books”. In order to achieve its sole objectives,
academic libraries therefore found it very useful
to inculcate as part of its services to educate the
patrons on how to effectively use the library
through what they call library user education.
III. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Library users’ needs with the academic library
differs, as some go to the library to read their
manuals, sit to relax, perform class assignments,
others utilize the library resources, etc. Since the
primary source for establishing academic libraries
is to facilitate the teaching and learning process of
students. For this reason, no student should
withhold self from using the library resources
unless if the students are ignorant of how to use
the library resources, which may eventually
happen as a result of lack of effective scheme in
library-user-education they receive.
To this juncture, the researchers agreed that
majority of the students in Federal College of
Education (FCE) Kano and FCE Zaria often
limited themselves using the library to read their
personal manuals, to relax, and to do their
home-away class exercises. This is not bad to say,
but their lack of usage of the library resources is
one problem that can be attached to ineffective
library user education program.
IV. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The overall objective is to study the effectiveness
of library user education services in increasing
library usage in FCE Kano and FCE Zaria.
Therefore, the specific objectives are as follows:
1. To find out if there exist variation in schemes
of library user education practice by the
academic libraries of FCE Kano and FCE Zaria
4.1 Significance of the study
Findings of the study will specifically provide the
institutions under study with the necessary
information on the current state of library user
education practices in their environs. And at
large, each of the studied libraries provides one
another with a picture of the other, so that they
may checkmate indoors activities on library user
education for improvement. Finally, the study
will also contribute to the existing literature on
library user education services provided by
academic libraries in Nigeria.
Previous studies conducted on library user
education services in and outside Nigeria
a. Rathore (1992) cited in Ahenkorah-Marfo, M.
and Teye, V. (2010) explained a scheduled
user education program in an academic
library setting. The scholar identified three
levels of user education, namely: (1) At the
beginning of every academic year or semester
(library instruction course) should be
applicable to all those who are using the
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Library User Education Service: A Synthesis of Federal Colleges of Education Kano and Zaria, Nigeria
library for the first time, such as library
orientation and library tour, (2) Subject
oriented instruction for undergraduates at a
stage when they are admitted to a special
branch or subject of their choice or at the time
of project work, and (3) Literature search
training, provided at the beginning of student
research work’. It means that, in students’
year one program, first semester specifically,
libraries organize library orientation and or
excursion for students to visit the library in
order to know the importance of the library,
and to see what the library looks like.
Subsequently, class sessions are organized.
Then, literature search training on how to
write project is organized when the students
are in their final year of study.
b. Samadani (1998) investigated on some
selected school libraries in Pakistan, and
survey method was used for the purpose. The
study found that lack of proper grounding
from schools leads to deficiency at more
advanced levels which resulted in the
enormous majority of students lacking
significant information literacy skills, and
attributed this to lack of user education
program at all levels.
c. Mohammad (2003) surveyed the roles of
Egyptian public libraries in environmental
information literacy with the overall objective
of increasing the library users’ information
awareness. The study findings indicated that
the public libraries offered literacy services in
display films format to increase library use.
d. Azmi (2006) surveyed teaching information
literacy skills in Qatar University and
observed that the volume and complexity of
the available information are increasing
significantly, which requires the basic
knowledge and skills to deal effectively with
this information (whether in traditional or
electronic form, is very crucial). Therefore, the
author recommended the need for an
instruction course to be offered within
students’ first academic year in the university.
e. Esievo (2007) in a study examined measures
to curb library user delinquency in academic
libraries of Kaduna State in Nigeria, which
indicates poor usage of the libraries. The
author used survey method, alongside
interview, personal observation, and a
questionnaire for data collection. 15 out of 20
academic libraries that offer diploma and
degree courses in Kaduna state were randomly
taken as sample, including their head of
libraries (librarians) as subjects. Findings of
the study showed 100% of the libraries
conducting user orientation which is a very
useful method in controlling user delinquency
for especially new students into the library. In
another result, some of the libraries used an
informal user education procedure that is,
talking personally to users on how to handle
library materials. Perhaps libraries that do not
talk to users informally feel satisfied with
formal instructions.
f. John (2008) reported about the Ventura
College library, and observed a major portion
of 31% increase in student usage statistics was
as a result of the increase in library
orientations which promoted usage of the
library's resources and services. This
significantly shows the value of library
orientation in attracting library users to the
library.
g. Renditiso (2011) in a survey examined the
state of the art in the field of information
literacy services in Italian academic libraries.
An information literacy service is a used term
by the libraries to mean usual user education
services provided by libraries. So the study
reviewed 95 university websites and found
some that presented on their library pages
information about user education, tells how
far libraries have gone in online library
instruction services which must be seen as a
good and welcome development for libraries.
h. Ibrahim (2012) examined the relevance of
library user education and the best methods to
the use of academic libraries by students of
tertiary institutions in Niger state north-west
Nigeria. To achieve this, survey research
design was adopted in a population consisting
of students of two universities. 190 students
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Library User Education Service: A Synthesis of Federal Colleges of Education Kano and Zaria, Nigeria
were randomly selected. The result of the
study revealed that library user education has
really affected the usage of library tools and
resources. The user education methods
employed included library orientation among
others.
i. Okoye (2013) studied the trends and
developments of user education in south-east
Nigerian federal university libraries using
descriptive survey method. The main aim was
to investigate how user education is organized,
coordinated and implemented, among a
sample of 26 academic librarians and
coordinators. 26 questionnaires were
retrieved from the subjects. Results of the
study showed that all the university libraries
studied offered library user education as a
General Studies Program. Moreover, an
overall statement on the study as indicated by
the author points that, library usage by the
students remained mainly traditional.
j. Moyane, Dube and Hoskins (2015) using
survey design conducted a study on the
effectiveness of user education programs for
postgraduate students in the School of
Management, Information Technology and
Governance at the University of
KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) South Africa. The
study employed the use of quantitative and
qualitative research methods from a sampled
population of 291 postgraduate students, 6
academic coordinators, and 3 subject
librarians. The use of questionnaire
instrument gained 70% response rate on
postgraduate students, and interview solicited
data from both the academic coordinators and
subject librarian of 83% and 100% response
rate accordingly. Findings in the study
revealed that, the postgraduate students at
UKZN were quite aware of user education
program offered by the university library via
UKZN library orientation week and UKZN
library website, though at a low rate.
k. Abdallah and Bilal (2015) assessed the nature
and effectiveness of library services and
information resources provided in four
university libraries in Lebanon from the users’
perspectives, where 1100 students were
surveyed. The authors found that across the
four universities, nearly 28% of the students
mentioned receiving one-on-one assistance
from library staff.
l. Michigan State University main library and its
satellite libraries is a famous academic library
in the United States of America. It provides an
online library tour that helps one in navigating
through its wide range of resources and in
locating major service points for additional
assistance. The institution’s online library tour
platform for example provides a visual scene
of the university library building. Therefore,
library tour does not necessarily mean
organizing students on a walk around the
library to see its holdings and or services.
V. METHODOLOGY
Descriptive survey method was adopted, that is,
surveying and analyzing the existing state of
affairs concerning library user education services
in Federal colleges of Education Kano and Zaria.
The population of this study comprises of the
colleges library staff. Based on the three
categories of library staff (professional,
para-professional and non-professional staff),
purposive sampling was used in selecting all the
professional library staff, 13 staff from FCE Kano
and 18 staff from FCE Zaria, since they are the
only ones that participates in library user
education service in the libraries. According to
Patton (2002), purposive sampling is used to
describe the strategic and purposeful selection of
information rich users, with the goal of making
sure that the selected sample provides the
necessary depth’ (data required). A close ended
structured questionnaire was used for the purpose
of data collection, while frequency/percentage
and non-parametric test of Mann Whitney in
SPSS was convenient for data analysis.
VI. DESCRIPTIVE RESULT
The findings of this study reveal the following
descriptive analysis:
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Library User Education Service: A Synthesis of Federal Colleges of Education Kano and Zaria, Nigeria
6.1 Do you perform library user education program in your library?
This question seeks to testify library user
education was performed by the libraries of FCE
Kano and FCE Zaria. All the sampled respondents
in both colleges, represented by 100% scores each,
replied ‘yes’ that library user education was
practiced by their libraries.
6.2 What library user education service does your library provide?
This question tries to find out whether the
libraries under study provided traditional user
education service, online user education service,
or a combination thereof. Both respondents in
each of the colleges affirmed that their libraries
only provided traditional user education service.
6.3 Which of the following schemes in user education is embraced by your library?
Responses obtained indicated that, a total of 13 or
100% of the participants in FCE Kano confirmed
‘library orientation for first year students’ as one
of the schemes in library user education, just the
same way all the 18 or 100 % staffs in FCE Zaria
acknowledged too. Also, 13 or 100% staffs in FCE
Kano stated embracing ‘subject oriented
instruction for students’, as against 16 or 88.9%
from FCE Zaria that hold ‘subject oriented
instruction a scheme’ – the rest 2 or 11.1%
disagreed. The use of ‘literature searching for final
year students’ was not embraced by FCE Kano, as
against only 2 or 11.1% from FCE Zaria who
believe it was present in their library, but the rest
majority 16 or 88.9% disagreed and said this
scheme is not being embraced by their college
library.
VII. INFERENTIAL RESULT
The Findings of this study reveals the following
inferential analysis:
Man Whitney nonparametric test difference
between FCE Kano and FCE Zaria respondents on
scheme of library user education adopted in the
academic libraries of FCE Kano and FCE Zaria.
Ranks College
library N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks P-value
Scheme of Library User
Education
FCE Kano 13 16.77 273.10 0.711
FCE Zaria 18 16.06 273.00
Total 30
Outcome of the non-parametric test of Man
Whitney in the table above showed that, there is
no significant difference between FCE Kano and
FCE Zaria library staff on the scheme of user
education adopted by the academic libraries in
FCE Kano and FCE Zaria. This was because the
calculated p value of 0.711 is higher than the
slated 0.05 alpha level of significance. The
computed Mean rank scores were 16.77 and 16.06
by FCE Kano and FCE Zaria. In the same vein
their computed Mean Sum of ranks are 273.10
and 273.00 by FCE Kano and FCE Zaria
accordingly. This shows that the type of user
education adopted by the academic libraries in
FCE Kano and FCE Zaria was not significantly
different.
VIII. CONCLUSION
This study was a synthesis of library user
education services between FCE Kano and FCE
Zaria. And it was ideal a problem that students
inability to utilize library resources could possibly
be due to ineffective library user education
system. Thus, the objective of the study was to
study the effectiveness of the program (library
user education), particularly, schemes of library
user education practices among the academic
libraries of FCE Kano and FCE Zaria. However,
the study concluded on the note that, library user
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57 © 2019 London Journals Press Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
Library User Education Service: A Synthesis of Federal Colleges of Education Kano and Zaria, Nigeria
education adopted by the academic libraries in
FCE Kano and FCE Zaria included a traditional
user education service, embracing in common
‘library orientation for first year students’, and
‘subject oriented instruction’.
IX. RECOMMENDATION
Based on the study findings, the following
recommendations are drawn:
1. Online user education services should be
implemented instead of only traditional user
education service as it affects the two libraries
under study.
2. Literature searching for final year student is a
pivotal library user education scheme which
needs to be introduced by both FCE Kano and
FCE Zaria. In fact, ‘literature searching for
final year students’ is important in addressing
research skills of students.
Is there anything new here?
Perhaps, nothing seems new in the area of studies
on library user education service in academic
libraries conducted across Nigeria. But to study
variations among groups of academic libraries
found in Nigeria higher institutions of learning, be
it universities, polytechnics, and or colleges of
education, no doubt there is paucity or vacuum
area of studies.
REFERENCES
1. ABDALLAH, F. and Bilal, D. (2015). Exploring
the Effectiveness of Library Services and
Resources in Academic Libraries in Lebanon
from Users’ Perspectives. IFLA. [online].
[Viewed 27 July 2017].Available from:
http://library.ifla.org/1157/1/147-abdallah-en.
doc.pdf
2. Ahenkorah-marfo, M. & Teye, V. (2010). From
user education to information literacy: Kwame
Ukrumah University of Science Technology
library’s experience. Ghana Library Journal.
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59 © 2019 London Journals Press Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
Library User Education Service: A Synthesis of Federal Colleges of Education Kano and Zaria, Nigeria
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libraries, published in different formats like Printed Hardcopy, Interactive PDFs, EPUBs, eBooks, indexable documents and the author managed dynamic live web page articles, LaTeX, PDFs etc.
libraries, published in different formats like Printed Hardcopy, Interactive PDFs, EPUBs, eBooks, indexable documents and the author managed dynamic live web page articles, LaTeX, PDFs etc.
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London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
London Journals Press membership is an elite community of scholars, researchers, scientists, professionals and in-stitutions associated with all the major disciplines. London Journals Press memberships are for individuals, research institutions, and universities. Authors, subscrib-ers, Editorial Board members, Advisory Board members, and organizations are all part of member network.
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© 2019 London Journals Press Volume 19 | Issue 4 | Compilation 1.0
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PRINTED VERSION, INTERACTIVE PDFS, EPUBS, EBOOKS, INDEXABLE DOCUMENTS AND THE AUTHOR MANAGED DYNAMIC LIVE WEB PAGE ARTICLES, LATEX, PDFS, RESTRUCTURED TEXT, TEXTILE, HTML, DOCBOOK, MEDIAWIKI MARKUP, TWIKI MARKUP, OPML, EMACS ORG-MODE & OTHER
© Copyright 2017 London Journals Press© Copyright 2017 London Journals Press© Copyright 2017 London Journals Press© Copyright 2017 London Journals Press© Copyright 2017 London Journals Press© Copyright 2017 London Journals Press© Copyright 2017 London Journals Press© Copyright 2017 London Journals Press© Copyright 2017 London Journals Press© Copyright 2017 London Journals Press©Copyright2017LondonJournalsPress©Copyright2017LondonJournalsPress©Copyright2017LondonJournalsPress©Copyright2017LondonJournalsPress©Copyright2017LondonJournalsPress©Copyright2017LondonJournalsPress© Copyright 2017 London Journals Press© Copyright London Journals Press 2019