Acculturating into (In)active Commuting to School: Differences between Children of Foreign-Born and...

2016 Children, Youth and Environments

Children, Youth and Environments 26(1), 2016

Acculturating into (In)active Commuting to School:

Differences between Children of Foreign-Born and

U.S.-Born Caregivers

So-Ra Baek Samina Raja

Department of Urban and Regional Planning

University at Buffalo, The State University of New York

Nathan Attard Institute for Community Health Promotion

The State University of New York, Buffalo State

Maryam Khojasteh

Department of City and Regional Planning

University of Pennsylvania

Citation: Baek, So-Ra, Samina Raja, Nathan Attard, and Maryam Khojasteh (2016). “Acculturating into (In)active Commuting to School: Differences between Children of Foreign-Born and U.S.-Born Caregivers.” Children, Youth and Environments 26(1): 37-55. Retrieved [date] from: http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublication?journalCode=chilyoutenvi.

Abstract This study explores how the cultural backgrounds of caregivers influence their perceptions and attitudes toward their children’s active commuting to school.

Caregivers in a suburban school district reported low rates of active commuting among children. Domestic and foreign-born caregivers differed in their perceptions

of safety from crime. In addition, foreign-born caregivers who are more acculturated tend to be more reluctant to allow children’s active commuting to school in the near future, compared to foreign-born caregivers who are less

acculturated. Cultural factors and perceptions of safety from crime should be considered in the development of programs that promote active commuting to

school. Keywords: Safe Routes to School, active commuting to school, foreign-born

caregivers, perceptions of neighborhood environment, acculturation, active living in suburbs

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublication?journalCode=chilyoutenvi

Acculturating into (In)active Commuting to School: Differences between Children… 38

Introduction Active commuting to school is an effective way for children to be physically active (Tudor-Locke, Ainsworth, & Popkin, 2001). However, children in the U.S. walk, bike, and use other forms of active transportation less often now than in the past, with

active commuting to school declining from 40.7 percent to 12.9 percent between 1969 and 2001 (McDonald, 2007a). Longer commuting distances to school,

unfavorable weather conditions, parents’ concerns about safety, and barriers in the physical environment are often studied to determine their relationship to this decline. An understudied factor is the role of the cultural backgrounds of caregivers,

specifically those who are immigrants to the U.S. This is an oversight given the growing diversity of the U.S. population: the foreign-born population accounts for

12.9 percent of the total U.S. population and is rapidly growing in many metropolitan areas. Immigrants are also settling in suburbs, where active commuting to school is less prevalent. Between 2000 and 2013, the percentage of

the foreign-born population residing in suburbs increased from 56 percent to 61 percent in the largest U.S. metropolitan areas (Wilson and Svajlenka, 2014). Given

that the new geography of immigration is unfolding across a suburban built form that is known to diminish healthy behaviors such as walking and cycling (Ewing, Schmid, Killingsworth, Zlot, & Raudenbush, 2003), it is important to understand

how the acculturation of new immigrants into these areas impacts these residents’ health behaviors.

Few studies have examined how the immigrant origins of caregivers—and their level of acculturation into American culture—influence their children’s active

commuting behaviors. Understanding foreign-born caregivers’ perceptions of neighborhood environments and active commuting is also critical for the success of

Safe Routes to School (SRTS) programs, which aim to promote active commuting to and from school. Such understanding would allow for the creation of a culturally informed framework for SRTS programs that results in improved active travel

outcomes for all groups.

This exploratory study documents the disparate perceptions and attitudes between foreign-born and native-born caregivers toward neighborhood environments and

explores the potential impact of these perceptions on children’s active commuting to school. The study also explores how the acculturation of foreign-born caregivers plays a role in these perceptions.

Literature Review Numerous factors influence caregivers’ willingness to allow children to actively commute to school. A review of the literature by Stewart, Moudon and Claybrooke (2012) identifies eight common factors that caregivers and/or children report as

barriers or facilitators to active commuting to school, including the cultural experiences of the children. The variables that comprise individuals’ cultural

experience include individuals’ foreign-born status, race and ethnicity, and regional location. They report two studies that find a statistically significant relationship

between caregivers’ foreign-born status and their willingness to allow their children to actively commute to school. The first, an analysis of children from 16 schools in California, found that children of caregivers born outside the United States are more


likely to commute actively to school, even after the researchers accounted for factors such as neighborhood and traffic safety, household transportation options,

attitudes about driving, social and demographic characteristics, and neighborhood walkability (McMillan, 2007). A second study of students in Quebec found that the

proportion of students who walked to school was highest among children whose caregivers were born in Canada, as opposed to those who had at least one caregiver born outside Canada. However, the same analysis found that the

proportion of students who took public transportation and used multiple modes of transportation was statistically higher among children who had at least one

caregiver born outside of Canada (Pabayo & Gauvin, 2008). In addition to the research on the travel-mode choices of children with foreign-born

caregivers, a great deal of research documents variation in travel-mode choice by race and ethnicity (Stewart, Moudon, & Claybrooke, 2012). After controlling for

individual and neighborhood covariates, researchers found that being African-American is associated with higher probability of walking to school (McDonald, 2007b). A study in Houston found lower rates of active commuting among Latinos

than among non-Latinos (Mendoza et al., 2010), while a study in California found higher rates of active commuting in schools with a higher proportion of Hispanic

students and lower rates in schools with a higher proportion of white students (Braza, Shoemaker, & Seeley, 2004; Davison, Werder, & Lawson, 2008).

Acculturation, the process in which one group of people adopts cultural norms from another group, is known to influence travel behavior. Comparative data on travel

behavior between foreign-born populations and native counterparts indicate that the foreign-born population is more likely to use transit, walk, bike, and carpool.

However, after five years of residence in their new home country, immigrants are more likely to use automobiles (Blumenberg & Shiki, 2007). The rate at which acculturation influences travel behavior varies by race/ethnicity. For example, after

a long period of settlement in the U.S., Hispanic immigrants were found to be less likely to use automobiles as their predominant mode of travel, compared to Asian

immigrants (Blumenberg & Shiki, 2007). Data also suggest that among immigrant populations, the transition to auto-centric travel behaviors is most dramatic during a foreign-born person’s first five years in the U.S. Recent data suggest that during

the first year in the U.S., only one-third of a foreign-born cohort drove to work in a single-occupancy vehicle, but by year five, half of this same cohort drove to work

alone (Chatman & Klein, 2009). Recent articles have attempted to understand children’s active travel to school

through the lens of acculturation. Studies documenting the effect of acculturation on travel behavior in California report varying results, depending on the type of

acculturation measure used in the study (e.g., language, country of origin, or a summative acculturation score). Caregivers living in the U.S. for fewer than 12 years reported more active commuting by their children, compared to caregivers

living in the U.S. for more than 12 years, while caregivers of English-speaking female children reported more walking among their children than did caregivers of

Spanish-speaking or bilingual children (Martinez, Ayala, Arredondo, Finch & Elder, 2008). Trends among ethnic groups in a study in Houston, which found lower rates


of active commuting among Latinos than non-Latinos, suggest that greater acculturation into American culture among children of immigrant caregivers is

negatively associated with active commuting to school (Mendoza et al., 2010). However, another study of a Walking School Bus program, a common SRTS

intervention where an adult chaperones a group of students on a walk to school, found a positive association between acculturation and active commuting (Mendoza et al., 2011).

Overall, research on changes in the travel behavior of immigrants and the role of

acculturation within the context of children’s active commuting to school is limited and inconclusive. This paper seeks to expand this knowledge by documenting the influence of acculturation on patterns of active commuting to school in a diverse

suburban school district in metropolitan Buffalo, New York. As neighborhoods across the country become more diverse, there is value in understanding how

caregivers’ acculturation, their perceptions of their neighborhood environments, and their children’s active commuting are related.

Research Design, Method of Analysis, and Data We used a cross-sectional research design to compare the home-to-school

commuting habits of children with a foreign-born caregiver to those with a U.S.-born caregiver, as reported by the caregivers.

Study Area The study area is the Sweet Home Central School District, which serves parts of the

towns of Amherst and Tonawanda in suburban Buffalo, New York. The district has four elementary schools, one middle school, and one high school, and served 3,261

students in grades K-12 in 2013-2014 (New York State Education Department, 2015). The district serves neighborhoods constructed in the mid- to late-20th century; 53 percent of housing units were constructed prior to 1970 (US Census

Bureau, 2014).

Sample Selection and Recruitment The sample comprised caregivers with at least one child in grades K-8 (and a valid

e-mail address, since recruitment and data collection were conducted electronically). With support of the school district, a link to the survey was distributed by e-mail to 1,657 caregivers, of whom 389 responded. Periodic e-mail reminders were sent to

caregivers who had not completed the survey in order to increase participation. The response rate varied between 15 percent and 22 percent, depending on the school.

Data for 13 respondents were excluded because of incomplete surveys. Ultimately, the sample comprised 376 respondents.

Data Collection and Measures The online survey of caregivers was conducted between March and June 2014.

Adapted from a tool prepared by the National Center for Safe Routes to School, the survey included questions about the commuting patterns of caregivers and children. The survey also asked questions about caregivers’ perceptions and concerns about

their neighborhood environments. In addition, the survey included socio-demographic questions, including caregivers’ place of birth, years of residence in


the U.S., and measures of caregivers’ level of acculturation. The study protocols were approved by the Institutional Review Board at the authors’ institution.

Variables

Willingness to Allow Children to Independently Walk/Bike to School A key dependent variable is caregivers’ willingness to allow their children to

walk/bike to school without an adult. Independent mobility is an important factor in allowing children to actively commute to school (Villanueva et al., 2014). This

willingness was determined by seeking caregivers’ responses to the question, “At what age would you allow your child to walk or bike to/from school without an adult?” Caregivers had the option to provide a specific age (in years) at which they

would allow their child to commute actively (walk/bike) and independently (without an adult) to school, or to choose the statement, “I would not feel comfortable at

any age [of the child].” The answer was dichotomized to determine the level of willingness (or, conversely, reluctance) to allow active commuting (response 1 = yes, at a certain age I will allow; response 0 = never allow).

Children’s Mode of Travel

Children’s current travel mode to/from school was documented through caregivers’ reports in the survey. In the Sweet Home District, 25 percent of respondents

reported that their children live within one-half mile of school (Table 1), yet fewer than 3 percent of caregivers reported that their children actively commute (walk or bike) to school (Table 2). Active school travel in this study is defined as

independent walking/bicycling to/from school. Of those who reported active commuting behavior among their children, at least one way of the commuting trip

was completed independently, without an accompanying caregiver (one child was accompanied by a sibling but not an adult).

Caregiver Attitudes Caregivers’ views of the benefits and enjoyment of walking or biking to/from school

are key in influencing children’s active travel behavior (Davison, Werder, & Lawson, 2008; McMillan, 2007; Merom, Tudor-Locke, & Bauman, 2006; Ziviani, Scott, & Wadley, 2004). To that end, the survey assessed caregivers’ attitudes toward

biking and walking.

Demographics Past studies have suggested that children’s age Davison, Werder, & Lawson, 2008; Evenson et al., 2003; (Merom, Tudor-Locke, & Bauman, 2006), race/ethnicity

(Braza, Shoemaker, & Seeley, 2004), their caregivers’ educational attainment (Martin, Lee, & Lowry, 2007), and household income all influence active travel

choices (McMillan, 2007). The survey asked caregivers to report demographic information, as well as their country of birth, to test the hypothesis that caregivers’ foreign-born status impacts their willingness to allow children to actively commute

(McMillan, 2007; McMillan et al., 2006; Pabayo & Gauvin, 2008).


Neighborhood Environment (Objective and Perceived) Objective and perceived measures of the neighborhood built environment have

been shown to impact active commuting (Davison, Werder, & Lawson, 2008; McMillan, 2007; Timperio et al., 2006). In this study, characteristics of the

neighborhood built environment around the school and home were measured using Geographic Information System (GIS) data. The participants’ addresses were obtained from the school district and geocoded to compute the network distance to

school along the street networks. Data on caregivers’ perceptions of traffic safety and personal safety (safety from crime) in their neighborhoods and the perceived

distance from home to their children’s school were obtained from the survey (Table 3).

Caregivers’ View of School Support for Active Commuting Caregivers’ perceptions of school support were measured by the degree to which

their school encouraged children’s active travel. The answer was rated on a 5-point Likert scale, which was aggregated into three responses: agreement (positive), neutral, or disagreement (negative).

Level of Acculturation

The level of cultural orientation in the context of two independent cultures (culture of origin and the host culture) was measured using an adapted short version of the

Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II (ARSMA-II) (Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995). The ARSMA-II was chosen as a measure of acculturation because of its prior use in the social sciences, including in studies documenting the

impact of acculturation on children’s active commuting to school (Martinez et al., 2008). It was originally developed for Mexican-Americans, but studies have used

the adapted version for other populations, including Asian immigrants (Zhang & Tsai, 2014). The 12 items assess several domains, including social contact and relationships, language, media, and cultural knowledge and exposure. The

measures provide two scores: one for the level of country-of-origin cultural orientation, called the Country of Origin Orientation Subscale (COS), and one for

the level of Anglo-American cultural orientation, called the Anglo-American Orientation Subscale (AOS). Both scores vary between 1 (low orientation) and 5 (high orientation). The overall acculturation score can also be calculated by

subtracting COS rank from AOS rank.

Sample Characteristics Respondent caregivers were predominantly female and white. Of the 376 respondents, 44 (12 percent) were foreign-born.i The respondents’ average age

was 40.2, with a range of 25 to 64 years. The majority of respondents had at least some college education and were from middle- to high-income households (Table 1).


Table 1. Sample characteristics (N=376)

Characteristics

n (%)

Caregiver’s Gender

Female 292 (77.7)

Male 41 (10.9)

Missing data 43 (11.4)

Caregiver’s Education

Less than high school 29 (7.7)

Some college 106 (28.2)

College graduate or more 195 (51.9)

Missing data 41 (10.9)

Household Income

Less than $30,000 38 (10.1)

$30,000 to $59,000 63 (16.8)

$60,000 to $99,999 97 (25.8)

$100,000 or more 84 (22.3)

Prefer not to say/Missing 94 (25.0)

Caregiver’s Foreign-born Status

Born in the U.S. 332 (88.3)

Born outside of the U.S. 44 (11.7)

Perceived Distance from Home to School

Less than ¼ mile 42 (11.1)

¼ mile up to ½ mile 54 (14.3)

½ mile up to 1 mile 56 (14.8)

1 mile up to 2 miles 86 (22.8)

More than 2 miles 121 (32.0)

Missing 17 (5.0)

Child’s Grade

K-2 124 (33.0)

3-5 128 (34.0)

6-8 124 (33.0)

Child’s Gender

Female 171 (45.5)

Male 205 (54.5)

Child’s Ethnicity/Race

Hispanic or Latino 25 (6.6)

Non-Hispanic 351 (93.4)

White 273 (72.6)

Others (Non-White) 103 (27.4)

Mean (SD)

Caregiver’s Age (years) 40.2 (6.2)

Distance from Home to School (miles) 2.3 (1.8)

Acculturation Level of Foreign-born Caregivers

Country of Origin Orientation Subscale (1~5) 3.6 (1.2)

Anglo-American Orientation Subscale (1~5) 4.3 (0.6)

Overall Acculturation Score (-4~ +4) 0.6 (1.3)

Years in the U.S. (years) 16.1(11.3)


Analytical Methods A bivariate analysis (Chi-square tests) was used to compare perceptions and

behaviors among domestic-born and foreign-born caregivers. In addition, a logistic regression model was employed to examine the influence of acculturation level on

foreign-born caregivers’ willingness to allow their children to actively, independently commute to school. Two basic demographic characteristics (child’s grade and gender), a proxy for socio-economic status (SES) of the family, a factor influencing

travel-mode choices (number of household vehicles), and two neighborhood environmental factors that significantly influence the decision to actively travel to

school (network distance to school and perceived level of safety from crime) were selected and adjusted for the model, given the small sample size of foreign-born caregivers.

Limitations of the Study

The cross-sectional design and small sample size—of foreign-born caregivers in particular—limit the number of covariates in the model and the statistical significance of the analyses. Recall bias or social desirability bias can be another

limitation. Weather might have influenced the participants’ responses. Some foreign-born caregivers might have experienced difficulty understanding the survey

questions. The study’s findings may not be generalizable given that the town is one of the more diverse and affluent suburbs in the study area. In addition, the online

caregiver survey results did not yield knowledge of why and how cultural factors matter in the perception of neighborhood environments and in attitudes toward active commuting for children.

Results Current Patterns of and Willingness to Allow Walking and Biking to School Very low rates of active commuting to school (1.6 percent walked; 1.1 percent

biked to school) were reported by caregivers. The majority of the children (78 percent) rode the school bus, and a slightly greater proportion of children with

native-born caregivers relied on family vehicles for trips to school, compared to the children of foreign-born caregivers (19 percent vs. 15.9 percent). No statistically

significant differences in travel modes of children of domestic-born and foreign-born caregivers were reported.

Caregivers reported that only about 21 percent of children asked permission to walk or bike to school in the past year, and 52 percent of caregivers reported that they

would not be comfortable letting their children walk or bike at any age without an adult. Caregivers who would allow children to walk or bike without an adult in the near future reported that, on average, 12-13 years old (6-7th grade) is the age at

which they would allow their children to travel independently and actively to school (Table 2).


Table 2. Commuting habits of children and willingness to allow active travel, as reported by caregivers

Variable

U.S.-born

(n=332)

n (%)

Foreign-

born

(n=44)

n (%)

Total

(n=376)

n (%)

p-

value

Current Behavior

Children’s mode of transportation

Walking 6 (1.8) 0 (0.0) 6 (1.6)

.728

Bicycling 3 (0.9) 1 (2.3) 4 (1.1)

School bus 260 (78.3) 36 (81.8) 296 (78.7)

Family vehicle 63 (19.0) 7 (15.9) 70 (18.6)

Child asked for permission to walk/bike to school

Yes 72 (21.7) 8 (18.2) 80 (21.3)

.593 No 260 (78.3) 36 (81.8) 296 (78.7)

Willingness in the Future

Willingness to allow child to walk to school in the future

Never alone 171 (51.5) 25 (56.8) 196 (52.1)

.507 Yes, at a certain age I will 161 (48.5) 19 (43.2) 180 (47.9)

If Yes, at what age (Years, Mean (SD)) 12.8 (2.3) 12.7 (2.1) 12.8 (2.2)

Environmental Barriers to Active Commuting to/from School Caregivers differed in their perceptions of neighborhood environments. A greater

proportion of foreign-born caregivers reported that there are high crime rates in their neighborhoods (p-value=0.08) and that the high crime rates made walking

unsafe during the day (p-value<0.01), compared to native-born caregivers. A greater proportion of foreign-born caregivers perceived that the administration of their children’s school was encouraging children to walk or bike to school, as

opposed to U.S.-born caregivers, who perceived the school as having a neutral stance on active commuting (p-value <0.01).

Even though the differences are not statistically significant, a greater proportion of foreign-born caregivers, compared to their U.S. counterparts, perceived heavy

traffic (57 percent vs. 45 percent) and speeding drivers (73 percent vs. 67 percent) as contributors to unpleasant and/or unsafe walking along their neighborhood

streets. Overall, foreign-born caregivers reported significant levels of crime-related and traffic-safety concerns more often than did U.S.-born caregivers.

No significant differences between the two groups of caregivers are evident in the objectively measured and perceived distances to school. However, more than half

of all respondents (69.2 percent) lived farther than 1 mile from school, and a greater proportion of families with foreign-born caregivers lived more than 1 mile

from school, in comparison to families with caregivers born in the U.S. (76.2 percent versus 55.2 percent, respectively, not shown in the tables).1

1 This higher proportion of families with foreign-born caregivers living more than 1 mile

from school could be impacted by the district’s policy of sending all students requiring

English as a Second Language (ESL) courses to one district elementary school.


Table 3. Perception of the environment and school policy

Statement

US-born

(n=332)

n (%)

Foreign-

born

(n=44)

n (%)

p-value

There is so much traffic along nearby streets

that it makes it difficult or unpleasant to walk

in our neighborhood.

Agree 135 (44.7) 25 (56.8)

Neutral 31 (10.3) 6 (13.6)

Disagree 136 (45.0) 13 (29.5) .152

Most drivers exceed the posted speed limits

while driving in our neighborhood

Agree 200 (66.7) 32 (72.7)

Neutral 34 (11.3) 7 (15.9)

Disagree 66 (22.0) 5 (11.4) .225

The speed of traffic on most nearby streets is

usually slow (30 mph or less).

Agree 130 (43.2) 22 (50.0)

Neutral 20 (6.6) 5 (11.4)

Disagree 151 (50.2) 17 (38.6) .268

There is a high crime rate in our

neighborhood.

Agree 16 (5.3) 6 (13.6)

Neutral 52 (17.3) 9 (20.5)

Disagree 233 (77.4) 29 (65.9) .080

The crime rate in our neighborhood makes it

unsafe to go on walks during the day.

Agree 13 (5.3) 9 (20.5)

Neutral 39 (13.0) 6 (13.6)

Disagree 246 (81.7) 29 (65.9) .001

How much does your school encourage/

discourage children to walk or bike to/from

school?

Encourages 4 (1.2) 4 (9.1)

Neutral 282 (84.9) 33 (75.0)

Discourages 46 (13.9) 7 (15.9) .003

Length of Residence and Perceptions of Lack of Safety The perceptions of neighborhood safety varied significantly by the caregivers’ duration of residence in the U.S. To explore the relationship between foreign-born

caregivers’ length of residence in the U.S. and personal-safety concerns, these caregivers were divided into two groups: 12 or more years of residence and fewer

than 12 years in the U.S. A greater proportion of foreign-born caregivers who had lived in the U.S. for fewer than 12 years perceived high crime rates in their neighborhoods as a barrier to walking during the day, compared to immigrant

caregivers who had lived in the U.S. longer than 12 years (Table 4).


Table 4. Perceptions of the environment by caregivers’ years of residence in the U.S.

Statement

Less than

12 Years

(n=19)

n (%)

12 or More

Years (n=25)

n (%) p-value

There is a high crime rate in our neighborhood.

Agree 5 (26.3) 1 (4.0)

Neutral 5 (26.3) 4 (16.0)

Disagree 9 (47.4) 20 (80.0) .044

The crime rate in our neighborhood makes it unsafe to

go on walks during the day.

Agree 7 (36.8) 2 (8.0)

Neutral 3 (15.8) 3 (12.0)

Disagree 9 (47.4) 20 (80.0) .044

Self-Reported Willingness to Allow Children to Independently Walk/Bike to School and Acculturation Level of Foreign-Born Caregivers: Results from a Logistic Regression Analysis

Among the foreign-born caregivers, greater acculturation to American culture is associated with lower willingness to allow children to actively, independently

commute to school in the future, after the analysis is adjusted for either individual factors only (p-value<0.05, Model 1) or all factors, including built environmental factors (p-value<0.01, Model 2). Caregivers with higher levels of Anglo-American

cultural orientation reported greater reluctance to allow their children to actively commute without an adult.

Previous studies have noted that higher income and greater rates of vehicle ownership change the travel patterns of foreign-born populations over time

(Blumenberg & Shiki, 2007; Blumenberg & Smart, 2011). The findings in this study add another possible connection to this work by linking the acculturation level of

caregivers to their children’s travel behaviors.

While foreign-born caregivers’ willingness to allow active and independent school commuting is not significantly correlated with objectively measured network distance to school, their willingness is positively correlated with their perception of

safety from crime (p-value<0.05, Model 2).2 Those who feel safer in the neighborhood are more likely to allow active, independent commuting by children.

2 The responses to the two statements about crime rates in the neighborhood were

averaged and summarized into a dichotomous variable for the regression model: Safety

from Crime (1=Agree, 0=Neutral or Disagree).


Table 5. Acculturation and willingness to allow active commuting for children: Results from logistic regression models*

Model 1 Model 2

Odds Ratio (95%

CI)

p-

value

Odds Ratio (95%

CI)

p-

value

Child’s Grade (0-8) 0.85 (0.64-1.14) .273 0.81 (0.58-1.12) .205

Child’s Gender (1= Male,

0=Female)

0.80 (0.21-3.12) .748 0.90 (0.20-4.03) .890

Number of Household

Vehicles

0.71 (0.23-2.15) .545 0.44 (0.13-1.52) .193

Anglo-American Orientation

Subscale (1~5)

0.21 (0.06-0.74) .015 0.10 (0.02-0.45) .002

Network Distance from

Home to School (miles)

0.58 (0.30-1.13) .110

Safety from Crime

(1=Agree, 0=Neutral or

Disagree)

9.45 (1.29-69.1) .027

** Model 1 summary: -2 Log likelihood = 51.283, Model 2 Summary: - 2 log Likelihood =

43.783

Discussion and Policy Implications Similar to studies nationwide, in this study caregivers report very low rates of active commuting among their children, and the majority reports that their children

commute by school bus. In addition, children do not appear to be seeking opportunities to walk/bike to school: the majority of caregivers reports that their children did not ask for permission to walk or bike to school in the last year. These

low rates may be attributed in part to the school district’s busing policy, which offers all students, no matter their proximity, a ride to school for free. Having this

free-for-all school bus system may dampen interest in walking or bicycling to/from school, even for students living very close to school because buses offer an easy and safer alternative for caregivers. Some school districts in the country require

students who live within a walkable distance from school (a quarter-mile or less for elementary school students and farther for middle/high school students) to walk

to/from their home or find alternative transportation. For example, the state of Washington provides only transportation cost reimbursements to school districts for students living more than one mile from school and is even considering a structural

change in the funding mechanism to incentivize efficient school transportation (Safe Routes to School National Partnership). If, through SRTS projects, walking and

bicycling from/to school becomes a safe and easy alternative for children living near their schools, it would be necessary to reconsider current school busing policy in order to effectively encourage active commuting and to manifest the impacts of the

interventions.

Foreign-born and domestic caregivers have differing perceptions about the extent to which their neighborhoods are safe from crime. More foreign-born caregivers


perceived higher crime rates in their neighborhoods and viewed their neighborhoods as unsafe for daytime walking. Elevated perceptions of

neighborhood crime rates among foreign-born caregivers vary by the duration of their residence in the U.S. Compared to recent immigrants (fewer than 12 years in

the U.S.), a greater proportion of long-term immigrants perceives their neighborhood as safe for walking during the daytime. The longer immigrants have lived in this country, the more comfort and safety they report about walking in their

neighborhoods.

Interestingly, the process of acculturation appears to be inversely associated with caregivers’ willingness to allow their children to commute to school actively. One explanation for this finding is that the more acculturated caregivers may have

adapted to the automobile-oriented lifestyles of American suburban communities, where driving everywhere is easy and a norm. Social contact and relationships,

media, and the cultural exposure of foreign-born caregivers within a suburban community likely shape how they interact with the environment and their choices for everyday activities, including their own and their children’s travel. Previous

research reports that more than half of the immigrants who were least reliant on automobiles during their first year in the U.S. drive alone to work after five years of

living in the country (Chatman & Klein, 2009). As caregivers rely more on private vehicles, their children might be more likely to be driven to school.

The findings of this study suggest that the current social and physical environments of schools and neighborhoods do not promote active commuting to school for

children. Caregivers’ responses about their schools’ limited policy support for active commuting were unequivocal. Foreign-born and U.S.-born caregivers agree over

concerns about traffic danger in their neighborhoods. High traffic volumes and speeding drivers on streets appear to contribute to an unpleasant walking environment for both caregivers and children. The dominant cultural environment,

which favors motorized commuting, may have influenced foreign-born caregivers’ perceptions of active commuting to school. Studies have found that lowering the

speed limit is a cost-effective approach to reduce accident and injury and improve perceptions of safety (Cairns, Warren, Garthwaite, Greig, & Bambra, 2015). Area-wide lowering of the speed limit around schools might better relieve the level of

concern over traffic danger, compared with the current practice of school speed zones. To date, SRTS programs have done very little to challenge the auto-

dominant culture, particularly in the suburbs, and this culture is probably the underlying mechanism that most promotes motorized transportation to school. Child pedestrian and cyclist safety is an issue not just for commuting to/from school

but for a range of places in urban areas where children live, play, and travel.

Differences in perceptions of the built environment between foreign-born and native-born caregivers might reflect the former group’s previous experiences in their home countries, where social and built environments are quite different from

those of the U.S. One study reported that immigrant mothers recognized dramatic changes in their own active living behavior between their home countries and the

U.S. For example, mothers reported spending more time driving and watching television in the U.S., while in their home countries they reported walking more


frequently to get to places (Sussner, Lindsay, Greaney, & Peterson, 2008). Follow-up in-depth interviews with the foreign-born caregivers could reveal why their

perceptions of safety from crime differed from those of the U.S.-born population and why the more acculturated foreign-born caregivers were less likely to allow

their children to walk or bike to school without an adult. Fortunately, both the domestic and foreign-born caregivers recognized the benefits

of walking/bicycling to/from school and viewed it as an enjoyable activity (data not shown) that may also be mediated by children’s peer networks. About 71.5 percent

of caregivers responded affirmatively to the statement that their children “would be more likely to walk/bike to school if a school friend were to join” them (data not shown). These responses suggest that children’s friends and peer networks are an

untapped opportunity for promoting active commuting to school. Programs that involve peers, such as the Walking School Bus program, may be a good strategy to

encourage walking to school (Kong et al., 2009). If organizers recruit children living within a walkable distance from school and utilize existing neighborhood social networks, Walking School Bus programs could be a feasible solution to increase

walking and bicycling to school and to catalyze the necessary cultural change to overcome negative perceptions of the environment.

Even though both walking and biking are active modes of transportation, they

require different safety measures, infrastructure, and skills. For example, biking to school requires bicycles, safety gear, bike racks at schools, etc. Moreover, to allow children to ride bicycles safely on sidewalks, the sidewalks must be wide enough to

accommodate both pedestrians and bicyclists. In our study, we did not differentiate the two types of commuters.

The foreign-born caregiver group (11.7 percent of the respondents) is a small sample from which to generalize about the impact of acculturation on caregivers’

willingness to allow children to actively commute to school. However, the population served by this school district area includes a similar fraction of foreign-

born people, who make up 15.2 percent of the district’s population. This suburban community does not include any specific ethnic enclaves, and the immigrants are from diverse countries. Therefore, we conclude that the sample of 11.7 percent is a

fairly good representation of the population of interest.

SRTS programs in the U.S. emphasize the modification of educational, encouragement, enforcement, and environmental factors. The cultural acceptability and efficacy of these factors is rarely explicitly addressed, however. To change

caregivers’ and children’s perceptions of neighborhood environments and active commuting, efforts should be made to change the current societal culture that

prefers motorized transportation over active commuting, that takes school busing for granted, and that privileges driving speed over children’s risk of injuries and deaths from traffic accidents. The current milieu disincentivizes independent

commuting, even among children living within walking distance. A changed societal culture could bring more eyes on the streets and a greater number of pedestrians

and bicyclists traveling the neighborhood, contributing to safer environments with reduced stranger-danger. Greater consideration must be given to cultural factors


that may help reverse the declining trends of active school travel among children. Given that foreign-born caregivers are more sensitive to crime in their

neighborhood, more enforcement and police presence where these immigrants are concentrated would be a way to directly address this concern. Observed

acculturation variations suggest that future interventions may be more effective if they are tailored to address the concerns of caregivers with diverse backgrounds.

Endnote i. The foreign-born caregiver participants are not homogeneous, and we acknowledge that

their perceptions and travel decisions could significantly vary depending on their cultures

of origin and the social and physical environments of their home countries.

Hispanics or Latinos comprise 6 percent of the native-born children and 11.4 percent of

the foreign-born children. There are only 5 out of 44 foreign-born caregivers who have a

Hispanic or Latino child, which we concluded would not provide enough statistical

significance. Analysis of Latinos vs. white Europeans is not possible, as we do not have

enough samples for these subgroups among the foreign-born caregivers. We also asked

their country of origin in the survey, and it showed that these foreign-born caregivers

came from very diverse countries (for example, 4 from Canada, 14 from Asia, 5 from

Europe, 4 from the Middle East, etc.). A subsample analysis would not generate reliable

statistics.

So-Ra Baek is an Assistant professor within the Department of Urban and Regional

Planning, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York. Her current research focuses on the connection between the built environment, physical activity,

and health outcomes, particularly among marginalized populations including women, immigrants, and children. She is a Co-Principal Investigator of Safe Routes to School in the Sweet Home Central School District, a project supported by the Town

of Amherst, New York that intends to increase rates of active commuting to school by the students in the town.

Dr. Samina Raja is an Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning and Adjunct Associate Professor of Community Health and Health Behavior at the

University at Buffalo, The State University of New York. Her research, teaching, and public service focuses on the role of planning in building sustainable food systems

and healthy communities. She is the Principal Investigator at the Food Systems Planning and Healthy Communities Lab and serves as the Principal Investigator of Safe Routes to School in the Sweet Home Central School District.

Nathan Attard is a Research Analyst at the Institute for Community Health

Promotion at SUNY Buffalo State, and was previously a research assistant in the Food Systems Planning and Healthy Communities Lab. His research interests focus on active transportation, community food systems, and planning for public health.

Maryam Khojasteh is a Doctoral Student in the Department of City and Regional

Planning, at the University of Pennsylvania, and formerly served as a research project assistant in the Food Systems Planning and Healthy Communities Lab. Her


research interests focus on community food systems, immigrant entrepreneurship, and health disparities.

References Blumenberg, E., & Shiki, K. (2007). Transportation assimilation: Immigrants, race

and ethnicity, and mode choice. Paper presented at Transportation Research

Board 86th Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C.

Blumenberg, E., & Smart, M. (2011). Migrating to Driving: Exploring the Multiple Dimensions of Immigrants’ Automobile Use, in Karen Lucas , Evelyn Blumenberg , Rachel Weinberger (ed.) Auto Motives (Default Book Series,

Volume ), pp.225 - 251.

Braza, M., Shoemaker, W., & Seeley, A. (2004). Neighborhood design and rates of walking and biking to elementary school in 34 California communities. American Journal of Health Promotion 19(2),128-136.

Cairns, J., Warren, J., Garthwaite, K., Greig, G., & Bambra, C. (2015). Go slow: An

umbrella review of the effects of 20 mph zones and limits on health and health inequalities. Journal of Public Health 37(3), 515-20. doi: 10.1093/pubmed/fdu067

Chatman, D. G, & Klein, N. (2009). Immigrants and travel demand in the United

States: Implications for transportatiion policy and future research. Public Works Management and Policy 13(4), 312-327.

Cuellar, I., B. Arnold, & R. Maldonado (1995). Acculturation rating-scale for Mexican-Americans II - A revision of the original Arsma Scale. Hispanic

Journal of Behavioral Sciences 17(3), 275-304. doi: 10.1177/07399863950173001

Davison, K., Werder, J., & Lawson, C. (2008). Children’s active commuting to school: Current knowledge and future directions. Preventing Chronic Disease:

Public Health Research, Practice, and Policy 5(3), 1-11.

Evenson, K., Hutson, S., McMillen, B., Bors, P., & Ward, D. (2003). Statewide prevalence and correlates of walking and bicycling to school. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 157(9), 887-892.

Ewing, R., Schmid, T., Killingsworth, R., Zlot, A., & Raudenbush, S. (2003).

Relationship between urban sprawl and physical activity, obesity, and morbidity. American Journal of Health Promotion 18(1), 47-57.


Kong, A. S., Sussman, A. L., Negrete, S., Patterson, N., Mittleman, R., & Hough, R. (2009). Implementation of a walking school bus: Lessons learned." Journal of

School Health 79(7), 319-25; quiz 333-4. doi: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00416.x

Martin, S. L., Lee, S. M., & Lowry, R. (2007). National prevalence and correlates of

walking and bicycling to school. American Journal of Preventive Medicine

33(2), 98-105.

Martinez, S. M., Ayala, G. X., Arredondo, E. M., Finch, B., & Elder, J. (2008). Active transportation and acculturation among Latino children in San Diego County. Preventive Medicine 47(3), 313-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.01.018

McDonald, N. (2007a). Active transportation to school: Trends among US

schoolchildren, 1969-2001. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 32(6), 509-516.

McDonald, N. (2007b). Travel and the social environment: Evidence from Alameda County, California. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and

Environment 12(1), 53-63.

McMillan, T., Day, K., Boarnet, M., Alfonzo, M., & Anderson, C. (2006). Johnny walks to school - Does Jane? Sex differences in children's active travel to school. Children, Youth, and Environments 16(1), 75-89. Available from:

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublication?journalCode=chilyoutenvi.

McMillan, T. E. (2007). The relative influence of urban form on a child's travel mode to school. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 41(1), 69-79.

Mendoza, J. A., Watson, K., Baranowski, T., Nicklas, T. A., Uscanga, D. K. Nguyen, N., & Hanfling, M. J. (2010). Ethnic minority children's active commuting to

school and association with physical activity and pedestrian safety behaviors." Journal of Applied Research on Children 1(1), 1-23.

Mendoza, J., Watson, K., Baranowski, T., Nicklas, T., Uscanga, D., & Hanfling, M. (2011). The walking school bus and children's physical activity: a pilot cluster

randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics, 128(3), 537-544. Merom, D., Tudor-Locke, C. & Bauman, A. (2006). Active commuting to school

among NSW primary school children: Implications for public health. Health & Place, 12(4), 678-687.

New York State Education Department. (2015). Sweet Home Central School District

2013-2014 enrollment. Albany, NY: New York State Education Department.

Pabayo, R., & Gauvin, L. (2008). Proportions of students who use various modes of

transportation to and from school. Preventive Medicine, 46(1), 63-66.

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublication?journalCode=chilyoutenvi


Safe Routes to School National Partnership (2016). A proactive approach to school transportation costs. Retrieved from

http://saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/school_bus_cutsAuburn_WA_FINAL.pdf.

Stewart, O., Vernez Moudon, A. & Claybrooke, C. (2012). Common ground: Eight

factors that influence walking and biking to school. Transport Policy, 24, 240-

248.

Sussner, K. M., Lindsay, A. C., Greaney, M. L. & Peterson, K. E. (2008). The influence of immigrant status and acculturation on the development of overweight in Latino families: A qualitative study. Journal of Immigrant and

Minority Health, 10(6), 497-505. doi: 10.1007/s10903-008-9137-3

Timperio, A., Ball, K., Salmon, J., Roberts, R., Giles-Corti, B., Simmons, D., Baur, L. & Crawford, D. (2006). Personal, family, social, and environmental correlates of active commuting to school. American Journal of Preventive Medicine,

30(1), 45-51.

Tudor-Locke, C., Ainsworth, B. E., & Popkin, B. M. (2001). Active commuting to school: An overlooked source of childrens' physical activity? Sports Medicine,

31(5), 309-13. US Census Bureau.(2014). American Communities Survey 2009-2013 5-year

estimates, selected characteristics of the native and foreign born populations. Washington, D.C: US Census Bureau.

US Census Bureau. (2014). American Communities Survey 2009-2013 5-year

estimates, selected housing characteristics in the United States: Sweet Home

Central School District. Washington, D.C.: US Census Bureau.

US Census Bureau. (2013). Decennial data on the foreign-born population 2000. Retreived from http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-11.pdf.

Villanueva, K., Giles-Corti, B., Bulsara, M., Trapp, G., Timperio, A., McCormack, G., & Van Niel, K. 2014). Does the walkability of neighbourhoods affect children's

independent mobility, independent of parental, socio-cultural and individual factors? Children's Geographies, 12(4), 393-411.

Wilson, J., & Prchal Svajlenka, N. (2014). Immigrants continue to disperse, with fastest growth in the suburbs. Brookings Institution: Immigration Facts

Series. Retrieved from http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2014/10/29-immigrants-disperse-suburbs-wilson-svajlenka.

http://saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/school_bus_cutsAuburn_WA_FINAL.pdf

http://saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/school_bus_cutsAuburn_WA_FINAL.pdf

http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-11.pdf

http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2014/10/29-immigrants-disperse-suburbs-wilson-svajlenka

http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2014/10/29-immigrants-disperse-suburbs-wilson-svajlenka


Zhang, Y. L. & Tsai, J. L. (2014). The assessment of acculturation, enculturation, and culture in Asian-American samples. In N. S. Thaler, L. T. Benuto, & B. D.

Leany (Eds.). Guide to Psychological Assessment with Asians (pp. 75-101). New York: Springer New York.

Ziviani, J., Scott, J. & Wadley, D. (2004). Walking to school: Incidental physical

activity in the daily occupations of Australian children. Occupational Therapy

International, 11(1), 1-11.

Date post:	11-Dec-2023
Category:	Documents
Upload:	independent
View:	0 times
Download:	0 times

Acculturating into (In)active Commuting to School: Differences between Children of Foreign-Born and...

Documents