Fayetteville State UniversityDigitalCommons@Fayetteville State UniversityFaculty Working Papers from the School ofEducation School of Education

6-1-2007

Student Lifestyles and Emotional Well-Being at aHistorically Black UniversityVivian DzokotoFayetteville State University, vdzokoto@uncfsu.edu

Terence HicksFayetteville State University, thicks@uncfsu.edu

Eboni Miller

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Recommended CitationDzokoto, Vivian; Hicks, Terence; and Miller, Eboni , "Student Lifestyles and Emotional Well-Being at a Historically Black University"(2007). Faculty Working Papers from the School of Education. Paper 11.http://digitalcommons.uncfsu.edu/soe_faculty_wp/11

STUDENT LIFESTYLES AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING" AT A HISTORICALLYBLACK UNIVERSITY

VIVIAN DZOKOTO

Department of Psychology

Fayetteville State University

TERENCE HICKS

EBONI MILLER

Department of Education

Fayetteville State University

Quality of life, physical and mental health, and lifestyle behav-iors were assessed in 500 graduate and undergraduate students ata Historically Black University. 82% of the sample rated theirquality of life positively. 11.3% of the sample reported milddepression, while 4.9% and 1.1% of the sample reported moder-ate and severe depression respectively. 8.4% of the samplereported suicidal ideation within the past two weeks. Family,financial and academic stressors were found to be significantpredictors of depressive symptoms. Implications for mentalhealth care are discussed.

Introduction

In a climate of educational budget cutsand decreasing prospects for minoritygroups seeking financial sponsorship foreducation, historically black colleges anduniversities (HBCUs) find themselves ina difficult position. An increased demandfor educational opportunities from the com-munities they serve call for expansion ofavailable programs and the creation of newones. However, most increases in the stu-dent population are not alwaysaccompanied by corresponding increasesin available resources to serve the students,leading to a strain on the infrastructure.Furthermore, a focus on increased student

enrollment without an emphasis on reten-tion can have negative implications for thelikelihood of a newly-enrolled studentcompleting a degree program. In such aclimate, it is crucial that HBCU s pay atten-tion to the quality of student life and worktowards providing students with an opti-mal support system as the students pursuetheir academic goals.

Mental health of College StudentsMental health of students usually gets

national attention when a student commits

suicide. The rate of successful college sui-cides is estimated at 7.5 per 100,000(Silverman, Meyer, Sloane, Raffel, & Pratt,

Support for this research was provided by grant P20 MDO01089-01 from the Nation-allnstitution of Health, NCMDHD, and Department of Health and Human Services.

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1997), with 9.5% of a random sample ofstudents indicating that they had "serious-ly considered attempting suicide" (Kisch,Leino, & Silverman, 2005). Thoughnumerous studies have found a lower sui-cide rates in African American samples,suicidalideationhasbeenfoundtobe lowerinAfricanAmericansonlyatHBCUs (Har-ris and Molock, 2000). The authorsattributed this difference to cultural orien-

tation and family support.It is important to pay attention to the

emotional well-being of students not sim-ply because depression can be lifethreatening. Emotional well-being pre-dicts academic performance and attrition

Table1.

Sources of stress

rates (Gerdes and Mallinckrodt, 1994).The most frequent emotional difficultiesexperienced by students include depres-sion, anxiety, stress, bereavement,substance abuse, familyproblems, roman-tic relationship problems, learningdisabilities, sexual assault, eating disor-ders, sexual orientation concerns, andissues of self-concept and identity (Back-els and Wheeler, 2001). Of these,depression is the most common (Gerdesand Mallinckrodt, 1994) with a reportedprevalence rate of 15.7% in female col-lege students, and 8.7% in males(Frankenberger et al, 2004).

ReportedStress(Percentage of sample)

Not at all Slightly Rather Highlystressed Stressed stressed

Academic 20.5 50.0 19.7 9.6StressProblems with 53.9 36.2 7.7 2.0ProfessorsRoommate 73.1 14.8 7.9 3.9StressFinancial Stress 31.0 39.8 17.7 14.2

Poor Housing 65.8 26.6 5.1 2.2

FamilyProblems 45.9 34.9 11.6 7.4

Single Stress 75.3 16.6 5.6 2.2(not having arelationship)Relationship 54.0 28.8 12.4 4.4StressFriendship 66.1 26.7 4.8 1.5Stress

Quality of Lifeof CollegeStudentsQuality of life (QOL) is an evaluation

of well-being that has been the focus ofresearch in psychology, clinical settings,and in industry. According to Hofstede(1984),themeaningof a high qualityof lifeis linked to culture: the individualisticver-sion of a high quality of life means"individual success, achievement, self-actualization, and self respect" (pg 394).In contrast, family and group membershipplay an important role in the meaning of ahigh quality of life in a collectivistic con-text. Whilea reviewof qualityof lifescalesin beyond the scope of this paper, it isimportantto note thatQOLmeasuresrangefrom single items to measures with sever-al subscales.

Quality of life data suggests that a sig-nificant proportion of college students aresatisfied with their lives. For instance,28.3% of students surveyed from a NewEngland university "very satisfied" inresponse to the question "How satisfiedare you with yourself as a person?" Inaddition, 50.3% were "mostly satisfied",and 14.8% were "satisfied" with them-

selves (Disch, Harlow, Campbell, andDougan, 2000). In a study examining lifesatisfaction ratings from college studentsin 31 countries (Diener and Diener, 1995),83% of students from the United States

responded above the neutral point for selfreported life satisfaction, measured on a7-point delighted-terrible scale. Meanscores for satisfaction with oneself,finances, family, and friends were aboveneutral for American students.

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HBCULifestylesand well-being .../513

Life Styles of College studentsThe interest in the life styles and health

relevant behaviors of students attendingtertiary institutions is important for manyreasons. Health behaviors in college maycontinue after graduation, and can be relat-ed to national concerns such as HIVIAIDS

and obesity. Certain habits, such as regu-lar exercise, have been found to bebeneficial to mental health. In this section,data about university student physicalactivity, smoking behavior, and drug andalcohol consumption are reviewed.

Physical activity

Although regular physical activity hasbeen associated with mental and physicalhealthbenefits,an estimated78% ofAmer-ican adults do not get enough exercise(Department of Health and Human Ser-vices, 2003). Studies investigating theexercisebehaviorof collegestudentsshowmixedfindings,and might reflect a changein exercise behavior over time as well as

measurement differences. Though Reedand Phillips (2005) cited previous litera-ture reporting in low levels of regularphysical activity in college student popu-lations, they observed that studentsengagedin an averageof 10.5exerciseses-sions in a 7-day period. In their studyinvestigating the leisure activities of 411undergraduate students over a 7-day peri-od, Reed and Phillips observed thatfreshmen and sophomoresexercisedmorethanjuniors and seniors,and that the inten-sity and duration of students' physicalactivity was related to proximity of exer-cisefacilities. Otherstudiesshowdifferinglevels in physical activity, some of whichcan be accounted for by method of exer-

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cise assessment. For instance, Hudd et al

(2000) reported that 28.3% of a randomsample of college students acknowledgedexercising at least seven hours a week,while the American College Health Asso-ciation National College HealthAssessment (ACHA-NCHA) 2003 sam-ple had 44.2% of students reporting at least20 minutes of exercise for a minimum of

3 days in a 7-day span. Grubbs and Carter(2002) found that 68.8% of college stu-dents surveyed exercised for at least 20minutes three days a week, and that moremales exercised than females did. Kelley,Lowing, and Kelley (1998) reported thatlevels of physical inactivity in AfricanAmerican college students ranged from 35to 53% in males, and 42 to 82% in females.Garman, Hayduk, Crider, and Hodel (2004)observed that 21.8% of a student sampleexercised too much (defined as more than360 minutes a week) identified barriers toregular physical activity include: lack ofmandatory physical education classesthroughout the college years, time con-straints, and embarrassment (Grubbs andCarter, 2002), as well as lack of supportfrom others (Kelley, Lowing, and Kelley,1998).

Smoking among College Students

In their review of cigarette smokingpractices in American college students,Patterson, Lerman, Kaufmann, Neuner,andAudrain-McGovern (2004) observedan annualprevalenceof 38.1- 41.3% (stu-dentswhohad smokedat leastone cigarettein the past year), and 30-day prevalencerates rangingfrom 28.2- 28.5%. The per-centage of students reporting that theyhadsmoked at least once in their lifetime

ranged from 53.4%to 74.8%. The authorsalso observed that females were just aslikely as males to smoke, and Caucasianstudents were more likely to smoke thanBlack, Hispanic, and AsianAmerican stu-dents. Predictors of smoking behaviorsincluded living in an apartment, athleticparticipation, stress, feelings of depres-sion, and drug use. Lenz (2004) reporteddieting and weight control as an addition-alpredictorof smokingbehaviorin collegestudents. In another study, Hestick, Per-rino, Rhodes, and Sydnor (200I) surveyedsmoking behavior in African Americanuniversity students. Annual and 30-dayprevalence data was not available for thisstudy.However, the authors observed that9.3% of the sample had smokedmore than100 cigarettes in their lifetime, 58.3% ofthe sample had smoked at least once intheir lifetime.

Alcohol use among College StudentsMedia attention to alcohol-related

deaths on college campuses brings to lightthe detrimental consequences of excessivealcohol consumption to student life. Mod-erate and heavy alcohol consumption hasbeen linked to poor academic performance(Maney, 1990).

According to the ACHA-NCHA (2005),which surveyed students on 19,497 stu-dents from 33 campuses in the UnitedStates, the lifetime prevalence of alcoholuse was 82.5% and the 30-day prevalencewas 86.2%. The modal range of drinksconsumed by students the last time theypartied was 1-4, with 41.8% of femalesestimating ~eir alcohol consumption with-in this range. Males on average drank morethan females, with bimodal ranges of 5-8

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and 9 or more drinks (27.5 % in each case).69.2 % of females reported keeping trackof number of drinks consumed, comparedto 54.4% of males, and 81.7 females and69.1 % of males reported using a desig-nated driver.

Drug Useamong College StudentsThough drug use on student campuses

is significantly less than it was in the late1970s, longitudinal data show increases instudents reporting marijuana and Ecstasyuse (Pope, Ionescu-Pioggia, and Pope,2001; Mohler-Kuo, Lee, and Wechsler,2003). The ACHA-NCHA (2005) sur-veyed the use of substances includingmarijuana, amphetamines, cocaine,Rophynol and Gamma hydroxy butyrate(GHB). Percentages of students whoreported no lifetime use were: 63.7% formarijuana, 89.1 % for amphetamines,94.3% for cocaine, and 98.2 for Rohypnoland GHB. Of the users, percentages of stu-dents reporting no use in the last monthwere: 19.8% for marijuana, 6.3% foramphetamines, 4.2% for cocaine, and 1.6%for Rohypnol and GHB. Alcohol and otherdrug use has been found to be related toplace of residence. A comparison of resi-dential and commuter students showed thaton campus students drank more, and com-muter students used more marijuana(Sessa, 2005).

In an ethnographic study of college stu-dent cocaine users, Jackson-Jacobs (2004)described the typical college studentcocaine user as being from a financiallysecure background who used the drug forrecreational purposes. He found that stu-dent users were typically able to control orschedule consumption, hide drug use from

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parents, and compensate in terms of pro-ductivity for missed academic work.

Background of the studyThe goal of this survey was to examine

physical and mental health and lifestylebehaviors on the campus of an HBCU andcompare them to norms obtained in the lit-erature. The information obtained would

be used to inform campus programmingto benefit the student body, and would con-tribute to the growing body of literaturefocusing on students of HBCU s.

This study was conducted during an eraof marked change and growth in the uni-versity's history. During a span of about2 years, enrollment increased rapidly, andaverage SAT scores for entering studentsimproved. A newly appointed chancellorworked to alter the prevailing political cli-mate. A significant number of new facultymembers were hired, and new academiccourses and programs were developed. Amassive construction undertaking wasunderway with the goal of creating morebuildings and renovations and expandingexisting ones. To provide supports for thestudent body, the university began a Sopho-more Year initiative and set up learningcommunities. In addition, the NoellLevitsStudent Inventory (CSI), which facilitatesthe early identification and tracking of at-risk students was administered to 87% of

the freshmen class of 2004. Of theses, 71%were interviewed and subsequent referralswere made to university support services.In this era of growth and increasingresources for the students, a look at thequality of life of students was warranted.The data presented in this article is a sub-set of a larger data set.

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Method

Participants were recruited primarilyfrom classes in the departments of educa-tion and psychology from an HBCU in theSpring of 2005. Most participants receivedno remuneration for their participation inthe study, however participants enrolled inintroductory psychology courses receivedcourse credit for research participation.

Each student completed a health behav-ior, self-rated health, and quality of lifequestionnaire and the Beck DepressionInventory Second Edition (BDI-II). Thehealth behaviors, self-rated health, quali-ty oflife questionnaire was adapted by thesecond author from Vaez and Laflamme

Table1.

Sources of stress

(2003). It contained a total of 30 itemsand inquired about demographic informa-tion, life style choices (alcohol and drug useand exercise behavior), life stressors, healthstatus, and overall perceptions of qualityof life. Life stressors (such as not copingacademically, family problems, and finan-cial problems) were rated on a 4-point scaleranging from "not at all stressed" to "high-ly stressed". Overall physical health wasrated on a 5-point scale, ranging from "verypoor" to "very good" while specific healthproblems such as anxiety, headaches, upsetstomach, and fatigue were rated on a 4-point scale ranging from "not a lot" to "alot". Perceived quality of life was mea-

Reported Stress(Percentage of sample)

Not at all Slightly Rather Highlystressed Stressed stressed

Academic 20.5 50.0 19.7 9.6StressProblems with 53.9 36.2 7.7 2.0ProfessorsRoommate 73.1 14.8 7.9 3.9StressFinancial Stress 31.0 39.8 17.7 14.2

Poor Housing 65.8 26.6 5.1 2.2

FamilyProblems 45.9 34.9 11.6 7.4

Single Stress 75.3 16.6 5.6 2.2(not having arelationshill)Relationship 54.0 28.8 12.4 4.4Stress

Friendship 66.1 26.7 4.8 1.'5Stress

Table2.

Race, Sex, and Depression (Frequency data)

HBCU Lifestyles and well-being .../517

sured using a lO-point ladder scale with 1representing "the worst life you might rea-sonably expect to have" and 10representing "the best life you might expectto have". (BDI-II) is a 21-item self reportmeasure of depression severity (Beck,1987) developed to correspond with thecriteria for depressive disorders in theDSM-IY. It has a coefficient alpha of 0.93and a test-retest reliability of 0.93 (Beck,1987).

DemographicInformationThe sample consisted of 158 males

(33.8 percent) and 310 females (66.2 per-cent). 83.5 percent of the sample wasbetween the ages of 18 and 30. The eth-nic distribution of the sample was asfollows: 77.1 % African American, 12.8

percent Caucasian, 5.4 & Hispanic, 0.6%Native American, 0.6% Asian American,and 0.6% African. 2.6 percent of the sam-ple identified themselves as other (not self-identifying as a member of the above eth-nic groups). This distribution resemblesthe ethnic make up of the institution werethe study was conducted (75% AfricanAmerican, 17 percent Caucasian, and 5percent Hispanic). 14.6% of the samplewas married. 57.1 % ofthe sample identi-fied themselves as freshmen, 14.4 % weresophomores, 12.7% were juniors, 6.4%were seniors, 8.8% were graduate students,and 0.6% were non-degree seeking stu-dents taking classes at the university.40.8% of the research participants livedon campus, 14.3% lived with their parents,and 3.9% were single parents.

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Level of Depression

Minimal Mild Moderate Severe

African 271 43 19 4AmericanCaucasian 53 3 1 1

Asian 3 0 0 0Race American

Hispanic 21 1 1 0AmericanNative 2 1 0 0American

African 2 1 0 0

Other 8 2 2 0

Female 229 39 21 5Sex

Male 134 11 2 0

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Results

Quality of Life and lifestyle dataThe mean reported quality of life on the

10-point scale was 7.07 with no signifi-cant race or sex differences. With 82% of

the sample rating their quality of life aboveneutral (6 or higher), these findings areconsistent with literature indicating thatAmerican college students are generallysatisfied with their global quality of life.82% of men and 61% of women reportedexercising at least 2-4 times a month.About 50% percent of the sample got whatwould be defined as an adequate amountof exercise: 33% of the sample reportedexercising 2-3 times a week, and 17.3%exercised 4 times or more per week. Ofthe 18% of respondents who reported thatthey never exercised, there were seventimes as many women than men. 52% ofthe sample reported that they never drankalcohol, while 85.7 of the sample deniedcurrent drug use. 3.2% of respondentsadmitted to daily use of drugs while 8.5%admitted to occasional drug use.

Sources of Student Stress.Of the sources of stress included in the

questionnaire, finances were the majorsource of concern for the sample with39.8% of respondents indicating slightstress about their finances, and 31.9%reporting significant concern (see Table1.) Concern about not coping academi-cally ranked second on the list with 50%of the sample reporting slight stress overthis concern and 29.3% reporting signifi-cant concern. Moderate to high levels ofstress were reported by students concern-ing family problems (19.0 %), relationship

problems (16.8%), and problems withroommates (11.8%).

Depression

The BDI II data yielded a Chronbachalpha of 0.88. Analysis of the BDI-II dataindicated that 11.3% of the sample wasmildly depressed, 4.9% was moderatelydepressed, and 1.1% of the sample exceed-ed the cut off point for severe depression.Given that the students were recruited from

students who attended classes, it is possi-ble that the actual incidence of depressionin the student body on this campus is high-er than the data suggests - severedepression could promote absenteeism.The gender and sex distributions are shownin Table 2.

Predictors of Depressive Symptoms:BDI scores correlated significantly withself reports of perceived poor psycholog-ical health (r =.413, p< .001), anxiety (r =0.449, p< .001), fatigue (r=0.431, p< .001)and headaches (r= 0.371, p< .001). Ofthe stressors included in the questionnaire,students experiencing high family stress(r = 0.353, p< .001), financial stress (r =0.327, p< .001), academic stress (r= 0.313,p< .001), and relationship stress (r= .260,p<O.OOl)were more likely to be depressedthan students reporting otherstressors suchas stress from roommates (r =0.054, ns)and stress of being single (r= 0.079, ns).Family, financial and academic stressorswere found to be significant predictors ofBDI depression when entered into a step-wise regression model (R square =.199),see Table 3. Significant but weaker Spear-man correlations ~ere obtained between

severity of depression and how often the

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Table3.

Predictors of Depression

HBCU Lifestyles and well-being ...f 519

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students drank alcohol (r =0.135, p< .001),

frequency of exercise (r =-.146, p< .002),and smoking behavior (r= -.124, p<.05).Non-parametric correlations betweendepression and drug use were not statisti-cally significant.

Suicidal ideation: 8.4% of the sample(n=39) endorsed having suicidal thoughtsor wishes during the previous 2 weeks. Ofthese, 37 (7.5% of the sample) wereMricanAmerican and 33 (7% of the sam-ple) were female (see Table 4). Animportant demographic trend was noticedin the analysis: more than half of studentsreporting suicidal ideation were freshmen(n =20), and less than half of them livedon campus (n=16).

Symptoms: Somatic symptoms wereendorsed more frequently than affectiveones. Samplemean scoresfor loss of ener-gy (BDI item 15), change in sleepingpatterns (BDI item 16),change in appetite(BDI item 17) and fatigue (BDI item 20)ranged between0.53 and 0.91, while sam-ple means scores for feelings of sadness,pessimism, past failure, loss of pleasure,feelings of guilt, punishment feelings, andself-dislike (BDI items 1- 7) ranged 0.20to 0.37.

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Discussion

The findings of this study indicate thatself-ratings of quality oflife, prevalence ofdepression, and lifestyle indicators arecomparable to existing available collegestudent data, suggesting that on average,the self-reports of lifestyle, quality of lifeand mental health of students at this insti-

tution's are comparable to national norms.The fact that about half of the sample, andmore females than males, do not get engagein enough physical activity is troubling,nevertheless, the percentage is lower thanthe national average. Overall, self-report-ed alcohol and other drug consumptionwere lower than national averages.

The fact that many of the studentsreporting suicidal ideation were freshmenand off-campus residents is a cause forconcern and suggests that an interventiontargeting these populations may be need-ed. It is also important to note that a largeproportion of students who endorsed sui-cidal ideation was African American, andthat the overall rate was comparable tonational college student data. This sug-gests that assumed protective culturalsupports for African American college stu-dents may not be available to everyone.

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B Std. Error p t Sig

Family 1.768 .379 .241 4.662 .000stressAcademic 1.534 .386 .193 3.971 .000stressFinancial 1.018 .346 .153 2.944 .003stress

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Table4

Race, sex, and Suicidal Ideation (Frequency data)

The data also speaks to the fact thatinterventions designed to improve studentwell-being need to target family, financial,and academic stressors, since these werefound to be significant predictors of depres-sion. In other words, a systems approachis indicated. It must be noted, however, thatsince correlation does not imply causation,one cannot conclude with certainty thatthese stressors are driving depressivesymptomatology. Nevertheless, it is impor-tant to address the systemic stressors aswell as the individual distress in order to

enhance student's well-being and optimizetheir educational development.

Limitationsof the studyThough this study provides some use-

ful information about the life of collegestudents, several limitations of must beacknowledged. First of all, based on thedebilitatingeffectthat depressioncan haveon a student's ability to attend class, it ispossible that the prevalence of depressionin the student body was underestimated.Second, the examination of drug useamong college students was limitedbecause the questionnaire did not inquireabout the drugs of choice. Lastly, giventhat this was a preliminary investigation,mentalhealthchallengesotherthandepres-sion that college stl,ldentsmay face (suchas eating disorder, anxiety disorders, andlearning disabilities) were not explored.

Endorsement of Suicidal ideation on BDI

0 1 1

African 313 33 1AmericanCaucasian 58 1 0

Asian 3 0 0Race American

Hispanic 13 1 0AmericanNative 3 0 0American

African 3 0 0

Other 11 0 0

Female 176 31 1Sex

Male 151 5 1

As such, the results of this study shouldnot be considered a comprehensive explo-ration of college student well being.Nevertheless,this dataprovidessomevalu-able data that may be used to enhancestudent well-being through clinical inter-vention and campus-wide outreachactivities at HistoricallyBlack institutionsof higher education.

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