BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE OR ROUGHNESS OF VEGETATED WATERCOURSES BY F.H.DAWSON

(Freshwater Biological Association, River Laboratory, Wareham, Dorset, UK) and F.G. CHARLTON (Consulting Civil Engineer) Freshwater Biological Association Occasional Publication No. 25.

1988 Published by the Freshwater Biological Association The Ferry House, Ambleside, Cumbria LA22 OLP United Kingdom.

c. Freshwater Biological Association 1988 ISSN 0308-6739

CONTENTS Page 1. Vegetation in waterways 4 2. Design needs 7 3. Mechanics of flow in channels 10 4.

Investigations 11 5. Limitations of bibliography 11 6. Acknowledgements 15 7. The bibliography (in alphabetical order) 16 8. Addendum (October 1987) 49 1. VEGETATION IN WATERWAYS The movement of water in natural and artificial channels (rivers,floodplains and canals) is influenced by the type and form

of the boundary material on the bed and banks, and by the effect of obstructions within the channel. Vegetation occurs in many watercourses for the whole or part of every year changing the hydraulic resistance (Table 1). The interaction between the vegetation of various species and the flowing water is complex, being influenced by many factors which include:- (a) The height of the vegetation relative to the depth of flow (e.g.compare a grass covered floodplain, a channel with reeds and a tree covered plain). (b) Diameter, shape, surface texture and specific gravity of plant stems and leaves. (c) Flexibility or stiffness of stems or of whole plant stands (affecting the deflection and frequency of vibration of a stem).

(d) Form resistance, water approach angle and dimensions of plant stand. (e) Distribution of stems within the plant stand, their areal or numeric density, and the degree of stem compaction caused by increasing velocity and the resulting change in stand permeability (i.e. water tends to flow round rather than through stands). (f) Distribution of plant stands, their frequency and pattern per unit area of watercourse. The presence of vegetation in a waterway may affect flow in some of the following ways:- (a) Reduce water velocity and raise water levels. (b) Increase, progressively, the flooding or overbank spill particularly during summer when aquatic vegetation may be at its

maximum (i.e. increase flood risk). (c) Encourage the deposition of suspended sediment which may have to be removed to maintain adequate flow discharge capacity; this is supply dependant and seasonal. (d) Change the magnitude and direction of currents within a channel causing local erosion or reducing erosion, depending on the location, extent and density of the vegetation. (e) Interfere with the use of water for navigation, fishing and swimming. TABLE 1 Vegetative hydraulic resistance or roughness with empirical values and investigations.

A Introductions to the general nature of vegetative resistance 168, 334, 335, 125, 127, 305, 257, 304 (marine algae 169) measurement - aquatic plants 254, 255, 256 - grasses 64, 238, 188, 182, 184 (see below) B Studies of vegetative hydraulic roughness with its values and

variation - general 124, 348, 93, 309, 290, 113, 213, 187 - biomass related 72, 73 - seasonal change in total roughness 94, 95, 243, 244, 259, 260, 72, 73, 74, 104, 105, 68, 236, 37, 254, 8, 156, 255, 234, 339, 256, 78 - seasonal change, partition 135, 216 - roughness and velocity (n vs VR) 275, 185, 136 - irrevocable changes in roughness 169, 78, 254, 112 - turbulence 180, 181 C Studies on changes in roughness - plant management 343, 345, 315, 280, 28, 25, 222, 2, 76, 122, 336, 157 D Separation of vegetative roughness from bank, bed of flood plain 130, 70, 66, 154, 306

E Similarities of roughness in non-vegetated streams for comparison - winter (temperate zone) values 129, 266, 5, 196, 1 ,301, 302, 45, 284, 277, 353, 229, 226, 277 - small channels 131, 132 - lined channels 217 - tidal channels 316 F Applied studies - canals and irrigation ditches 348, 27, 326 - downstream of channelised reaches 38, 39 - runoff studies 253 - improvement in plant management 105, 104, 15, 73, 8, 156 G Values of roughness 55, 120, 17, 94, 63, 238, 146, 107, 161, 271, 42, 325, 314

H Grasslined channels and flood plains, non-aquatic vegetation (these data have considerable significance for erosion control and flooding, which have topical interest) - optimum shape and vegetative lining for intermittent flows 60, 54, 268, 61, 64, 238, 65, 102, 101, 86, 87, 145, 62, 52, 53, 107, 147, 273 - species selection USA 65, 270, urban areas 52, 53 UK 235, for river banks 347, 83 Australia 86, 87 - erosion control general 14, 64, 332, 296, 174, 164 during grass dormancy 360

coastal sites 227 excess velocity damage 237 design 84, 271, 361 long-term stabilisation 111 seasonal values 0.025-0.05 in winter or after plant washout to 0.3-0.6 at maximum plant biomass, summer, for smaller streams. The problem of estimating hydraulic resistance due to the presence of vegetation in a waterway is wider than appears at first sight. It includes flow over short grass where the depth is several times greater than the height of the grass, flow over and through weeds of different areal distribution, and between trees. Numerous

papers have been written on the topic but due to many different patterns of flow there is no single method of approach which is suitable for all situations, a point which is often not explicit in many of the papers contained in the bibliography. 2. DESIGN NEEDS

The ability to predict the discharge capacity and stage in watercourses is essential for the design of irrigation, water supply, drainage, flood control, river conservancy and navigation schemes. An efficient and successful plan, however, is not restricted to the engineering requirements only, it must take into account the interests of conservationists, fishermen and other users of the amenities afforded by the watercourse. A better understanding of the effect of vegetation on flow in waterways by engineers, botanists, zoologists, fishermen, conservationists and all concerned with or affected by natural or artificial watercourses is desirable (Table 2). Such understanding will help to ensure efficient and economic design, avoid unrealistic demands and lead to greater harmony among all concerned with the

maintenance and use of watercourses. TABLE 2 Vegetation and water flow affects on ecology, morphology and their interaction A Ecological effects of water flow - general interactions and role of water plants 44, 215, 103, 288, 291, 303, 117, 118, 207 - flow on metabolism 89, 344, 210, 140, 141, 216 - vegetation and seasonal flows 195, 177, 178, 117, 37, 114, 170 management effects 77, 308, 345, 2, 157 - flood effects on vegetation 23, 112

- abrasive materials on plants 59, 200, 201 - seasonal codominance of species 191, 74 - silting and vegetation 88, 298 - as habitat etc. for animals and microorganisms 220, 233, 16, 313, 46,300 - flow on animals (experimental) 6, 79, 80 B Morphological interactions - redesign and channelisation effects,151, 123, 38, 39, 40, 41, 249, 286, 323 - improvements in land drainage and environmental awareness 218, 160, 294, 219, 338, 246 - bank and channel protection - general 155 - vegetative 148, 241

- overbank flows, high roughness 198, 269, 189 - boundary shear 225, 163 - sheet flow 251, 252, 337 - flood risk and channel design, floodwave passage 281, 311, 115, 349, 159, 289, 342 - hydraulic resistance in flood plains and boundaries 161, 147, 185, 137, 190, 242, 248, 258 - flood retardation by trees 29, 30, 31, 160, 176 - tree removal for new reservoirs 265 - fluvial morphology and hydraulic geometry 197, 41, 50, 152, 153, 356, 357 C Role of vegetation in erosion reduction and habitat improvement

- general studies 298, 24, 363, 299, 322, 10, 134, 21, 310, 34, 199 - bank improvement and maintenance 9, 193, 320, 32, 224, 318, 214, - vegetation planting 326 TABLE 3 Water flow measurement and resistance or roughness determination

A Water flow and resistance - empirical equation 212, 13, 121, 69, 340, 341 - texts and chapters 54, 55, 120, 13, 159, 26, 3, 20, 261 B Flow and hydraulic roughness determination - texts 110, 333, 202, 100, 158, 262, 281, 120, 172, 346, 240, 287, 316, 159 - bibliographies to 1963 48, 13, 321 - roughness factors (n = 0. 02-0.08) - tables 55, 266 - illustrations 92, 239, 17, 332, 11, 12 C Flow measurement techniques - general or standard 51, 122, 35, 138, 67

- errors and uncertainty 36, 35, 138, 33, 211 - flumes 2 - electromagnetic 109, 138 - tracer gauging 85, 58, 57, 4 (extensions of technique 73, 78) - small watercourses 143 - turbulence effects 149, 108, 71 - weed on flumes 82 D Velocity in the vicinity of plants - dissolution method 209 - fine wires or filons 213 - dyes or particles 6, 80 E Rating curve methods - simple direct 35, 138, 122

- special incorporating seasonal plant growth 43, 104, 105, 156 - floodplain flow 351, 352, 3. MECHANICS OF FLOW IN CHANNELS The theory of flow in channels is complex and reference should be made to text books for details (Table 3). Basically, however, the quantity of water flowing in a channel is a function of the wetted cross sectional area and perimeter of the channel, the hydraulic gradient and the resistance to flow. The magnitude of the latter depends on the retarding shear force at the channel boundaries, obstructions in the channel, changes in channel alignment and section along the waterway, and sediment movement. Over the last two centuries scientists and engineers have

studied the mechanics of the movement of water to develop methods of predicting the magnitude of hydraulic roughness at the boundaries of channels. Studies have included the hydraulic roughness of rigid or inerodible boundaries (e.g. concrete, steel, brickwork etc.), and mobile boundaries (e.g. sands, gravels etc.). More recently attempts have been made to predict the magnitude of hydraulic roughness due to vegetation growing on the bed and banks of watercourses. Many formulae have been developed relating speed of flow and hydraulic resistance, but the two in common use are:- (i) Manning's equation V = {K} R{0.67} S{0.5} and {{n}}

(ii) Logarithmic equationV = 5.75V}*{ log}10{(12.3 {R}) {{k}} where

V = mean speed of flow R = hydraulic mean depth (the cross sectional area of flow divided by the wetted perimeter of the channel) S = hydraulic gradient V* = shear velocity, i.e. (gRS){0.5} in wide rivers K = coefficient depending on the units used in Manning's equation = 1.00 when units used are metres and seconds, or = 1.49 when units used are feet and seconds n = Manning's roughness coefficient k = equivalent grain roughness The results of investigations usually provide values of 'n' or 'k' for different types of vegetation, or more usually, for broad

general descriptions of the extent of vegetal growth in a channel. Some offer equations for the calculation of hydraulic roughness in terms of other parameters (e.g. diameter and spacing of elements). The logarithmic equation should be used in preferences to eq. (i), an empirical equation derived for large river flows with fully developed velocity profiles; further development of logarithmic-type equations is also required. 4. INVESTIGATIONS To determine the hydraulic resistance of a waterway the discharge, water surface slope and channel cross section are measured. There are many different methods and instruments

available depending on channel conditions and dimensions. These are fully described in technical literature together with information on the accuracy which may be expected. Investigations have covered field studies where particular channels have been gauged at the same time as a description of the vegetation has been given or a more detailed botanical survey undertaken (Table 4). Some studies have been undertaken in small channels in which specific types of vegetation have been cultivated in advance. Finally, studies have been carried out in laboratory flumes using artificial elements, flexible or rigid, to simulate the behaviour of natural vegetation. 5. LIMITATIONS OF BIBLIOGRAPHY

The hydraulic resistance of a vegetated waterway depends on the characteristics of flow and vegetation, variables which have not always been defined in papers listed in this bibliography. The resistance due to a particular type of vegetation is not a constant. Seasonal changes in biomass affect roughness, but the stage of growth is not mentioned in tables relating vegetal type and roughness. Sometimes a description of the type and extent of vegetation in a waterway has been omitted, making it impossible for the results of a study to be used to calculate flow and stage in other channels. TABLE 4

Plant structure and water flow A Comprehensive models 297, 204, 324, 325, 283, 247, 185, 208, 223 B Studies on tall vegetation - flow and sedimentation 204, 221, 327

- partitioning of roughness 78 - flow in grassed channels 238 in irrigated fields 276, 192, 327 in lakes, reed cutting 49, 312 - stiffness and leaf blade arrangement 183, 146, 162 - tree spacing and vegetation in floods plains 31, 176, 91, 137, 189, 194 - stem vibration (marine) 7 and for comparision - rigid pier resistance 133, 139, 241, 228 - multiple cylinders, wake interaction 355, 206 - vibration in hydraulic structures 172 C Short vegetation

- short grass in channels 64 - vegetative linings for rivers 185 - estuarine studies 98, 99, 169 - experimental studies on simulated vegetation or artificial plants 358, 250, 243, 236, 186, 135 - turbulence and velocity 223, 180, 181 and for comparision - short uniform vegetation in air 292, 293, 96, 97, 267 - action of wave forces and reinforcing tissues 47, 167 D Very short vegetation - flow patterns, metabolism and aquatic mosses 140, 141 E Large scale bed roughness (i.e. for comparison with small plant

stands) - roughness and drag form 278, 279, 282, 359, 295, 253, 13 - seagrasses and sediment beds 99 - friction form factors 127, 116 - channel resistance 128 - shear stress and velocity distribution 179 - laminar flow 350 F Studies on plant stands - individual stands freshwater 140, 141, 78 marine 7, 165, 166, 168 - long-leaved plants, on flow and turbulance 232 - sedimentation and stands 204, 221, 73, 327, 191, 88 (- size limits in wave-swept organisms 81)

Authors often fail to make clear whether their values of 'n' or 'k' were deduced assuming flow over the whole cross section of the waterway or only over that part unobstructed by vegetation. Since some investigations have shown that even small quantities of simple artificial elements significantly change the distribution of flow across the channel section, thickly vegetated waterways may convey nearly all the flow over the vegetation, almost nothing passing through it. Differences betweeen effective and assumed cross sections may therefore affect the values of 'n' or 'k' greatly. For example, in a wide waterway the value of 'n' may be increased from 0.03 to 0.05, 0.10, or 0.30 if the vegetation obstructs 0.25,0.50 or 0.75 respectively of the total cross section, and

allowance is not made for this reduction in flow area. The studies are beginning to show that more attention should be given to the degree of obstruction caused by different types of vegetation, the areal density of distribution and relative depth of flow. The concept of a blockage factor, or ratio of effective to actual area of cross section of watercourse might prove more

useful in the prediction of hydraulic resistance of vegetated waterways. Readers of the papers listed in this bibliography should examine carefully the descriptions of the type and extent of vegetation, and the flow conditions for which the results have been presented to avoid using data to compute flow in channels with very different conditions of flexible roughness and in a different phase of flow. The conclusions presented in some papers have sometimes been critally examined and discussed by other authors. Where such discussions are availaable readers are recommended to study them before making use of the conclusions presented. To assist the reader to select papers for study tables covering different aspects of the main and ancillary topics have been

included. In addition to references on the hydraulic resistance of vegetated waterways in different patterns and phases of flow, references have been included providing guidance on hydrometric methods, the accuracy of measuring techniques, the mechanical behaviour of vibrating elements, and the use of vegetation in bank protection and river training works. 6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to thank the following for help in commenting upon and in compling this bibliography, particularly D.F. Westlake, R.T. Clarke, P. Carling and T. Flintham of FBA, A. Brookes of Thames Water Authority, P. Barko of US Department of Army, Vicksburg, Mississippi, Remmet Pitlo of Wageningen, Holland, M.A.R. Koehl

of UC Berkeley, California, and Virginia Carter of US Geological Survey, Boston. 7. THE BIBLIOGRAPHY The following bibliography is an extensive, though not exhaustive, list of papers primarily related to vegetative roughness of watercourses. It includes ecological and morphological effects of flow together with references on unvegetated streams, air flows and physical hydraulic models for purposes of comparison. The bibliography is only annotated where expansion of the title is required for clarification of content or the paper has aspects of particular interest. Theses titles are included for completeness but were generally not seen.

(Notes Refs. = papers with useful related references; ins particularly useful information on subjects in title). 1. Ackers, P. and Charlton, F.G. (1970) The slope and resistance of small meandering channels. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, supplement 15, paper 7362S. [For comparision with vegetated channels.] 2. Ackers,P.,White,W.R., Perkins,J.A. and Harrison, A.J. (1984)

Weirs and flumes for flow measurement. J. Wiley & Sons, Winchester, 327pp. 3. Albertson, M.L. and Simons, D.B. (1959) Fluid mechanics. In: Handbook of applied hydrology (ed. V.T. Chow),7.1-7.48. McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York.

4. Allen, C.M. and Taylor, E.A. (1923) The salt velocity method of water measurement. Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers 45, 285-341. 5. Allen, J. and Shahwan, A. (1954) The resistance to flow along a tortuous stretch of the River Irwell (Lancashire) - an investigation with the aid of scale model experiments. Journal of the Institution of Civil Engineers Part III, 3(1), p.144. 6. Ambühl, H. (1959) Die Bedeutung der Strömung als ökologicher Factor. Schweize Zhurnal Hydrobiologie 21,

133-264. 7. Anderson, S.M. and Charters, A.C. (1982) A fluid dynamics study of seawater flow through Gelidium nudifrons. Limnology and Oceanography 27, 399-412. [Marine study of whole plant, includes vibration and turbulent flows.] 8. Andreasen, J-O. (1979) Grödens hydrauliske virkning. Laboratory for Physical Geography, Geological Institute, Århus University, Report No. 3, 64pp. [Hydraulic effect of water weeds, study of key streams in Jutland to find general relationship between flow and weed growth.] 9. Anselm, R. (1976) Analyse der Ausbauverfahren, Schäden

und Unterhaltungskosten von Gewassern. Mitteilungen des Institutes fur Wasserwirtschaft, Hydrologie und landwirtschaftlichen Wasserbau der Technische Universitat, Hannover 36, 11-189. [Thesis on channel maintenance and improvement by profile change.] 10. Arrignon, J. (1976) Aménagement écologique et piscicole des eau douces. Gauthier Villars, Paris, 320pp. [Various forms of bank protection and resectioning pp.236-247. Refs.] 11. Arcement, G.R. Jr, and Schneider, V.R. (1984) Guide for selecting Manning's roughness coefficients for natural

channels and flood plains. Us Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration, Report FWHA-TS-84-204, 1-62. 12. Arcement, G.R. Jr, and Schneider, V.R. (1984) Roughness coefficients for densely vegetated flood plains. US Geological Survey Water Resources Investigation 83-4247, 68pp. 13. ASCE (1963) Frictional factors in open channels. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 89, 97-143. (Discussion 1963, 89 (July), 283; 1963, 89 (Sept), 169;

1964, 90 (July), 223.) [Comprehensive bibliography.] 14. Bailey, R.Y. (1939) Kudzu for erosion control in the southeast. US Department of Agriculture, Farmers Bulletin No. 1840, 32pp. [Intermittent flows in grass-lined

channels.] 15. Baitsch, B. and Radermacher, H. (1972) Hydraulische Bemessung von verkrauteten Gräben geringer Dimensionen im landwirtschaftlichen Bereich. Gewässerunterhaltung 4, 1-76. [Resistance in small channels, weed factors, economics] 16. Baker, J.H. and Orr, D.R. (1986) The distribution of epiphytic bacteria on freshwater plants. Journal of Ecology 74, 155-165. 17. Barnes, H.H. (1967) Roughness characteristics of

natural channels. US Geological Survey, Water-Supply Paper No. 1849, 214pp. Washington, D.C. [Photographs of 50 stream channels, USA, with roughness coefficients n = 0.024-0.097, cross sections given.] 18. Bartley, T.R. and Gangstad, E.O. (1974) Environmental aspects of aquatic plant control. Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 100, 231-244. (Discussion: 1975,101, 230-234; 1977, 103, 281.) 19. Bathurst, J.C., Li, R-M. and Simons, D.B. (1981) Resistance equation for large scale roughness. Journal

of the Hydraulics Division, Proceedings of the Americal Society of Civil Engineers 107, 1593-1613. [Experimental work on large scale roughness (75mm) for comparision with small plant stands.] 20. Beaumont, P. (1975) Hydrology. In: River ecology (ed. B.A. Whitton), Studies in Ecology 2, 1-38. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. [Includes water flow equations.] 21. Begeman, W. (1980) Lebendverbau an Gewässern. Forschungen Institutet Senckenberg 41, 247-257. [Includes use of marginal vegetation for river and lake bank protection. Refs]

22. Benson, M.A. and Dalrymple, T. (1967) General field and office procedures for indirect discharge measurements. US Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigation, Book 3, Chapter A1, 30pp. 23. Bilby, R. (1977) Effects of a spate on the macrophyte vegetation of a stream pool. Hydrobiologia 56, 109-112. 24. Bittmann, E. (1967) Uferbewuchs and Uferform. Symposium on River Morphology. Bern 1967, International Association of Scientific Hydrology Publication 75,

297-308. [Vegetation on river banks and channel shape, influence of planting on bank shape, useful symposium.] 25. Blackburn, R.D., Sutton, D.L. and Taylor, T. (1971) Biological control of aquatic weeds. Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division, Proceedings of the

American Society of Civil Engineers 97, 421-432. 26. Blench, T. (1969) Mobile bed fluviology. (2nd. edition). The University of Alberta Press, Edmonton, 168pp. 27. Bogart, D.G. (1949) The effect of aquatic weeds on flow in everglades canals. Proceedings of the Soil Science Society of Florida 9, 35-52. [Florida - everglades canals, study and explanation of loss of efficiency due to aquatic plants.] 28. Bon, J. (1976) [Maintenance classes: arrangement

classification of dykes and drains.] [See Haslam 1978 ; in Dutch.] 29. Bonham, A.J. (1974) Storm drainage system design and new city planning. Civil Engineering Transactions of the Institution of Engineers, Australia CE16, 67-70. [Channel redesign in 'urban' Australian flood plain, use of suitable natural vegetation and reduced water velocities.] 30. Bonham, A.J. (1975) The influence of alternative stormwater drainage systems on flood discharges. Institution of Engineers, Australia, Hydrology Symposium,

Armidale 1975, 188-192. [As title and use of grass channels. Refs.] 31. Bonham, A.J. (1978) A role for flood retarding vegetation in urban stormwater management and creek preservation. Institution of Engineers, Australia, Hydrology Symposium, Canberra 1978, 174-175, [Analysis and model of storm flow through trees to determine optimum planting pattern and hydraulic drag.] 32. Bonham, A.J. (1980) Bank protection using emergent plants against boat wash in rivers and canals. Hydraulics Research Station, Wallingford, England, Report No. IT206, 34pp.

33. Botma, H and Struyk, A.J. (1970) Errors in measurements of flow by velocity-area methods. International Association of Scientific Hydrology, Symposium, Koblenz 1970, 2, 771-784. 34. Bowie, A.J. (1982) Investigations of vegetation for stabilising eroding streams banks. Transactions of the Soil and Water Division of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 25, 1-12. [Erosion control on Mississippi stream banks by combining vegetation with structural bank protection and resectioning.] 35. British Standards Institution. Methods for measurement

of liquid flow in open channels (BS 3680). (1983) Part 1. Vocabulary and symbols. (1974) Part 2A Dilution methods. Constant rate injection. (1983) Part 2C Dilution methods. Radioisotope techniques. (1980) Part 3A Velocity area methods. (1980) Part 3D Moving boat method.

(1981) Part 4A Weirs and flumes. Thin plate weirs and Venturi flumes. (1969) Part 4B Weirs and flumes. Long base weirs. (1981) Part 4C Weirs and flumes. Flumes. (1980) Part 4E Weirs and flumes. Rectangular broad crested weirs. (1981) Part 4G Weirs and flumes. Flat V weirs. (1970) Part 5 Slope area method. (1973) Part 6 Tidal channels. [under revision] (1971) Part 7 The measurement of liquid level (stage). (1973) Part 8A Current meters - current meters incorporating a rotating element. (1973) Part 8B Current meters - suspension equipment. (1980) Part 8C Current meters - current meter calibration.

(1971) Part 9A Water level instruments - specification for the instillation and performance of pressure actuated liquid level measuring equipment. (1980) Part 10B Methods of measuring sediment load. (1980) Part 10C Bed material sampling. 36. British Standards Institution (1980) BS 5844. Calculation of uncertainty of a measurement of flow. 37. Brooker, M.P., Morris, D.L. and Wilson, C.J. (1978) Plant flow relationships in the R. Wye catchment. Proceedings of the European Weed Research Society, 5th Symposium on Aquatic Weeds,Amsterdam 1978, 63-70.

[Inverse relationship of plant cover and peak biomass with flow during April to June for R. Wye and R. Lugg, Wales.] 38. Brookes, A. (1981) Channelization in England and Wales: Discussion Paper No. 11. Department of Geography, University of Southampton, 49pp. [Quantification of management techniques and hydraulic effects. Refs.] 39. Brookes, A. (1983) River channelization in England and Wales. Downstream consequences for the channel morphology and aquatic vegetation, 458pp. University of Southampton. Ph.D Thesis. 40. Brookes, A., Gregory, K.J. and Dawson, F.H. (1983) An

assessment of river channelization in England and Wales. The Science of the Total Environment 27, 97-111. 41. Brookes, A. (1985) River channelization: Traditional engineering methods, physical effects and alternative practices. Progress in Physical Geography 9, 44-73. 42. Bruk, S. and Oef, Z. (1975) Determination of roughness coefficients for very irregular rivers with large flood plains. Proceedings of the 12th Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research, Paper A.12.

43. Bussmann, P. (1978) Eine weitere Möglichkeit der Berücksichtigung des Verkrautungseinflusses auf den Abfluss. Deutsche Gewässerkundliche Mitteilungen 22, 57-61. [A method of determining the influence of weed growth on stream flow, use of sills and special rating curves for discharge.]

44. Butcher, R.W. (1933) Studies on the ecology of rivers. 1. On the distribution of macrophyte vegetation in the rivers of Britain. Journal of Ecology 21, 58-91. [Classic and useful study of vegetation groups in relation to environment factors. Refs.] 45. Butler, D., Rock, S.P. and West, J.R. (1978) Friction coefficient variation with flow in an urban stream. Journal of the Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists 32, 227-232. [Manning's n for lowland stream, Bourne brook, with lined sections.]

46. Butterworth, B. (1981) Biofilm growth and hydraulic performance. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 107, 629-649. 47. Carstens, T. (1968) Wave forces on boundaries and submerged bodies. Sarsia 34, 37-60. (Second European Symposium on Marine Biology.) 48. Carter, R.W., Einstein, H.A., Hinds, J., Powell, R.W. and Silberman, E. (1963) Frictional factors in open channels. Journal of the Hydraulics Division , Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 89, 97-143.

(Discussion: 1963, 89 (July), 283; 1963, 89 (Sept.), 169; 1964, 90 (July), 223.) [Comprehensive bibliography.] 49. Caspar, J. (1983) Circulation in reed-overgrown lakes. Proceedings of the 20th Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research, Moscow V, 536-542. VINITI, Moscow. 50. Chang ,H.H. (1985) River morphology and thresholds. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 111, 503-519. [Refs.] 51. Charlton, F.G. (1978) Measuring flow in open channels: a review of methods. Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, Report No. 75, 160pp.

52. Chen, Cheng-Lung (1975) Urban storm runoff inlet hydrograph study. 2. Laboratory studies of the resistance coefficient for sheet flow over natural turf surfaces. Utah Water Reaearch Laboratory, College of Engineering, Utah State University, Logan, Utah. Final Report No. PRWA 106-2, 56pp. 53. Chen, Cheng-Lung (1976) Flow resistance in broad shallow grassed channels. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 102, 307-322. (Discussion: 1977, 103, 90-91; 1977, 103, 1356-1357.)

54. Chow, Ven Te (Editor) (1964) Handbook of applied hydrology. McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York, 680pp. [Full discussion and diagrams on hydraulics of grassed waterways, permissible velocities, channel resectioning. Refs.]

55. Chow, Ven Te (1981) Open-channel hydraulics. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. New York, 680pp. (First edition 1959.) 56. Chow, Ven Te (1981) Hydraulic exponents. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 107, 1489-1499. 57. Church, M.A. (1974) Electrochemical and fluorometric tracer techniques for streamflow measurements. British Geomorphological Research Group, Technical Bulletin No. 12, 73pp. [Practical tracer techniques and annotated

bibliography.] 58. Cole, J.A. (1969) Dilution gauging by inorganic tracers, notably the plateau method. In: Institution of Water Engineers, Symposium on River Flow Measurement, Loughborough 1969, 111-154. 59. Conboy, D.A. and Glime, J. M. (1971) Effects of drift abrasives on Fontinalis novae-angliae Sull. Castanea 36, 111-114. 60. Cook, H.L. (1938) Spartanburg Outdoor Hydraulic Laboratory. Journal of the Civil Engineering Division,

Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 8, 653-655. 61. Cook, H.L. and Cambell, F.B. (1939) Characteristics of some meadow strip vegetations. Agricultural Engineering 20, 345-348. 62. Cornish, B.A., Yong, K.C. and Stone, D.M. (1967) Hydraulic characteristics of low cost surfaces for farm dam bywash spillways. University of New South Wales, Water Research Laboratory, Report No. 93. 63. Cowan, W.L. (1956) Estimating hydraulic roughness coefficients. Agricultural Engineering 37, 473-475.

64. Cox, M.B. (1942) Tests on vegetated waterways. Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agricultural Experimental Station, Stillwater, Oklahoma, Technical Bulletin No. T-15, 23pp. [Tests on grass species for temporary channels, flexible hydraulic roughness.] 65. Cox, M.B. and Palmer, V.J. (1948) Results of tests on vegetated waterways and method of field application. Oklahoma Agricultural Experimental Station, Stillwater, Oklahoma, Miscellaneous Publication No. MP-12, 43pp. 66. Cox, R.G. (1973) Effective hydraulic roughness for

channels having bed roughness different from bank roughness: a state of the art report. US Army Engineers Waterways Experimental Station, Miscellaneous Paper H-73-2, 64pp. (AD-757 138) [Use of seperate roughnesses is preferable but relatively large errors in estimating channel roughness caused only minor error in

capacity design.] 67. Dackombe, R.V. and Gardiner, V. (1982) Fluvial processes. In: Geomorphological field manual, (eds. V.Gardiner & R.V. Dackombe) 127-156. George Allen and Unwin, London. [Velocity- Area method, resistance coefficients, gauge structures etc.] 68. Danske Hedeselskab (1976) Data for Q-H-Kurver, Bilag i Viborg Amtskomme afströmningsmalinger 1976. Det Danske Hedeselskab Slagelse, Denmark, 53pp. [Variation in discharge to water height curves with plant growths for 9 river stations in Jutland; also other reports on similar

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