Psycho-social Factors as predictors of work stress among Nigeria Police in South-west, Nigeria

Researchjournali’s Journal of Management

Vol. 4 | No. 1 January | 2016 ISSN 2347-8217 1

www.researchjournali.com

Dr Lasisi, A. K.

Department of Educational Management and

Counselling, Al-Hikmah University, Adeta Road,

Adewole Housing Estate, Ilorin

Psycho-Social Factors

As Predictors Of Work-

Stress Of Nigeria Police

In South-Western

Nigeria




ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to examine the predictive ability of psycho-social factors on the work-stress of

Nigeria Police in South-western Nigeria. Previous studies examined relative influence of some bio-genetic

factors on work-stress independently rather than the joint effect of psycho-social factors on work-stress of the

Nigeria police. Therefore, this study investigated the combined and relative contributions of age, gender,

years of experience, level of education, self-efficacy, work-motivation, emotional labour and psychological

well-being (psycho-demographic factors) on work-stress of men and officers of the Nigeria police in south-

western Nigeria. Descriptive research design of ex-post facto type was adopted. Participants were 1327 men

and women, and 401 officers of Nigeria Police randomly drawn from police formations in South-West,

Nigeria. They consisted of 714 female and 1014 males with ages ranging from 25 to 52 years (Mean = 36.13,

SD = 6.86). The following instruments were used: Police Stress Scale (r = 0.76); Police Perceived

Organisational Commitment Scale (r = 0.81); Police Self-Efficacy Scale (r = 0.69); Police Work Motivation

Scale (r = 0.85); Police Psychological Well-being Scale (r = 0.74); and Police Emotional Labour Scale (r =

0.87). three research questions were raised and answered. Data were subjected to Multiple regression analysis.

It was observed that there were significant relationships between seven of the eight psycho-social factors and

work-stress (r. calculated range from 0.71 to 0.13, df 3454 and P < 0.05). It was also observed that psycho-

socical factors made significant composite contribution to the prediction of work-stress (F (8, 1719) = 94.12, p <

0.05). Seven out of the eight psycho-social factors relatively made significant contribution to the prediction of

work-stress of Nigeria Police in South-western Nigeria. The findings were discussed and the necessary

recommendations were put-forward.

1. INTRODUCTION

Policing and other allied security work had been observed as one of the most stressful occupations across the

globe. Nigerian factors have made the situation to be worse for Nigeria Police. Apart from normal sources of

stress for police such as asking to face armed robbers, making the public to adhere to rules and regulations,

being at the scenes of violent crimes or clashes to mention but just a few, specific sources of stress for Nigeria

Police include insufficient salary, inadequate training, negative perception from public, delayed promotion,

inhabitable barrack, dearth of sophisticated equipment, e.t.c. Nigeria Police has demonstrated that their

occupation is indeed very stressful by their inability to return compliment, dangerous weilding of gun,

excessive anger, e.t.c. (Aremu, 2009). This can negatively affect their effeciency especially when it was

concieved that the best measure of police effeciency is the evaluation of the public about their job. This

evaluation as far as Nigeria public is concern is unsatisfactory.




Anshel (2000) observed that law enforcement is one of the most stressful occupations. This means that the

professional responsibilities of law enforcers expose them to more than a little bit of stress. Among the law

enforcement professionals, police have the widest contact with the public and this makes them to be most

stressful among their counterparts. Aremu (2009) observed that being a police officer carries an enormous

amount of responsibilities. Hanson (2004) observed that policing can be a dangerous and stressful job. This is

amplified by Tang and Hammontree (1992 cited by Madu & Poodhun 2006) which claimed that high levels of

police stress and life stress are significantly related to illness and absenteeism and police work is stressful.

It is also deduced that the cumulative effect of stress among police could impaired their performance and

reduced their productivity. This assertion is corroborated by Cooper, Liukkonen and Cartwright (1996) which

posited that people affected by enormous stress may, among other things, become increasingly distressed and

irritable, have difficulty in thinking logically and making rational decision and that work stress accounted for

reduced performance and productivity. The ineffectiveness on the part of Nigeria Police to discharge their

constitutional responsibilites could be view from their work-stress. Studies are needed to be conducted on

how the menace of excessive stress among Nigeria Police could be addressed. The present study, which

intended to examine the predictive ability of psycho-social factors (gender, age, years of experience,

educational qualification, self-efficacy, work-motivation, emotional labour and psychological well-being) on

work-stress of Nigeria Police is among many needed to adequately manage the work-stress anomaly among

the personnel of Nigeria Police.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Chen, Wong, Ran and Gilson (2009) described the relationship between college stress, coping strategy and

psychological well-being. The study used a quantitative approach to evaluate the differences among 342

students in six universities in Shanghai. Differences of college stress, psychological well-being and coping

strategy with reference to gender, age, year of study, etc., were explored. The findings of the study showed

that psychological well-being has a negative relationship with college stress.

Collins and Gibbs (2004) examined the sources of stress-related symptoms within police officers and measure

the prevalence of significance associated mental ill-health. The study used a cross-sectional questionnaire

survey of a population of 1206 police officers to assess levels of strain associated with a series of potential

home and work related stressors. The results showed that occupational stressors ranking most highly within

the population were not specific to policing, but to organizational issues such as the demands of work

impinging upon home life, lack of consultation and communication, lack of control over workload, inadequate

support and excess workload (psychological well-being determinants) in general.




Pugliesi (2004) investigated the effects of two forms of emotional labour on work-stress, job satisfaction and

psychological distress, self-focused and other-focused emotion management are explored using data from a

survey of workers in a large organization. Results indicated that both forms of emotional labor have

uniformly negative effects on workers, net of work complexity, control, and demands. The finding also

showed that emotional labour increases perceptions of job-stress, decreases satisfaction, self-efficacy and

increases distress.

Simons and Barone (1994) tested whether quantity and quality of social support and two sources of work-

stress (organizational stressors and job risk) predicted work strain in police officers, a high-risk occupational

group. The participants were 135 police officers from a large metropolitan law enforcement agency who

responded to questionnaires for assessing work stress, social support, exhaustion, and other strain symptoms.

Emotional support and work stressors accounted directly for significant variance in emotional exhaustion,

depersonalization, and symptom frequency. Conflicted relationships, which are a source of both work-stress

and support, also contributed to strain. In contrast to previous findings, a reverse buffering effect for social

support did not contribute to predicting strain.

Langan-fox, Deery and Van Vliet (2009) reported the results of two studies of the relationship between

coping behaviour and the personality disposition need for power, taking into account the environment and the

subject's appraisal of the situation. Highly power-motivated individuals were hypothesized to utilize emotion-

focused coping strategies more than problem-focused coping strategies, to find the training environment

stressful and anxiety provoking, and to report more illness, than low power-motivated individuals. A 19-week

police academy training programme was used to measure these relationships in 34 police trainees. The results

did not support all hypotheses. Thus motivation did not significantly influenced coping strategies and

psychological stress of the participants.

Otis and Pelletier (2005) tested a motivational model of daily hassles, physical symptoms, and future work

intentions with a sample of 122 police officers. The study used path analysis and the results showed that

police officers who perceived their immediate supervisor as highly supportive of their autonomy were found

to report higher levels of self-determined motivation toward work. It was also found that higher levels of self-

determined motivation were found to be associated with higher future work intentions and lower levels of

reported daily hassles. The study concluded that perception of competence support from supervisors was not

found to be significantly associated with self-determined motivation; instead, competence support was found

to be negatively associated with daily hassles.

Grizzle (2009) investigated the relationhip between cognitive factors (benefits of healthy eating, barriers to

healthy eating, and dietary self-efficacy) with occupational stress among police officer. This nonexperimental,

correlational study was guided by the revised Health Promotion Model. A convenience sample of 289 sworn




police officers participated in the study. Among other findings, dietary self-efficacy was observed to have

significant negative correlation with occupational stress of the respondents.

Stetz, Stetz and Bliese (2007) examined how social support's moderating effect is dependent on one's self-

efficacy. Ninety-six US military police soldiers completed two surveys 3 months apart. The results showed

that three out of four regression equations had significant three-way interactions. Organizational constraints

supervisor support self-efficacy had statistically significant interactions in the prediction of job stress, job

satisfaction and psychological well-being.

Doug, Arvind and Scott (2008) reported a study which sought to understand the impact of education upon

police personnel in terms of their perceptions of role, work values, stress, management and supervisory

issues. This study was conducted among indian police. The findings show that education indeed made

impacts on the police personnel’s perceptions of role, work values, stress, management and supervisory

issues.

Griffin, Hogan, Lambert, Tucker-Gail and Baker (2005) investigated the relationship between job experience

and perceived job stress among police, correctional, and probation/parole officers. A survey of nearly 4,500

police, correctional, and probation and parole officers was used for cross-occupational comparisons of

perceived job stress among criminal justice personnel. The instrument included a modified version of

Spielberger's Police Stress Survey. The results revealed that police and probation/parole officers demonstrated

an apparent curvilinear relationship between time on the job and perceived stress. The study reported that the

trend was more linear when only line officers of both groups were considered. It also showed that correctional

officers, as a group, did not show a curvilinear pattern, although line correctional officers did.

Dowler and Arai (2008) examined gender differences in the perception of gender discrimination and in levels

of stress. The results indicated that male and female officers have conflicting attitudes about the amount and

nature of gender discrimination within police work. The findings further suggest that female officers

experience higher levels of stress. In addition, the results indicated a weak relationship between perceptions of

gender-related jokes and stress levels for females. Interestingly, male officers who report that females are held

to a higher standard experience lower levels of stress. Nevertheless, the most important stressor for both

males and females is the perception of job-related problems.

Chen, et al. (2009) described the relationship between college stress, coping strategy and psychological well-

being. The study used a quantitative approach to evaluate the differences among 342 students in six

universities in Shanghai. Differences of college stress, psychological well-being and coping strategy with

reference to gender, age, year of study, etc., were explored. The findings of the study showed male students

reported higher level of stress, worse psychological well-being, and having less inclination towards using

positive coping strategies than their female colleagues.




From the review of the literature, it was shown how psycho-social factors are related to work-stress of

personnel. Many of this study were conducted in foreign countries. The need to replicate these using Nigerian

participants informed the conduct of this study.

3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Are there relationships between each of the psycho-social factors and work-stress of Nigeria Police?

What is the composite contribution of the psycho-social factors to the prediction of work-stress among

Nigeria Police in south-western Nigera?

What are the relative contributions of the psycho-social factors to the prediction of work-stress of

Nigeria Police in south-western Nigeria?

4. METHODOLOGY

4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

This study adopted a descriptive survey research design using the ex-post facto type. The main thrust of the

study is the establishment of the prediction of the dependent variable (work-stress) by the independent

variables (age, gender, work-experience, educational qualification, self-efficacy, emotional labour and

psychological well-being).

4.2 POPULATION

The target population of the study consists of all Nigeria Police personnel South-western part of the country.

This include Nigeria Police staff in zones 12 and 2 with headquaters at Lagos and Osogbo respectively. They

also include the staff in each of the five state commands under the zones. The personnel of Nigeria Police in

24 Area commands of the zones were part of the study.

4.3 SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND SAMPLE

Multi-stage purposive sampling technique was used to select the participants of this study from the

population. The technique involved 3 stages. The first stage involved the division of Nigeria Police in south-

western Nigeria into two. The two zonal commands which are zone 2 and zone 12 with their respective

headquarters at Osogbo and Lagos were used. The second stage involved dividing each zone into state

commands. Two state commands are under zone 2 (Lagos and Ogun), while three state commands are under

zone 12 (Oyo, Osun and Ondo). The third stage involved dividing each state into area commands. Eight area

commands are under Lagos State and four area commands are under each of the remaining 4 state commands

(Ogun, Oyo, Osun and Ondo). The participants were selected from two zonal command, five state command

and twenty-four area command offices of Nigeria Police. In each of these offices, convenient sampling

technique was adopted. The police staff who were willing and ready to participate were included. At the end,

one thousand, eight hundred copies of research instrument were given out to the participants. One thousand,




seven hundred and twenty-eight were returned. The retrieval rate was 96%. The participants consisted of

seven hundred and fourteen female representing 41.3% and one thousand and fourteen male repressenting

58.7%. The ages of the respondents ranged from 25 years to 52 years with mean and standard deviation of

ages as 36.13 years and 6.86 respectively. Research information were collected from eight hundred and fifty-

nine participants representing 49.71 % from police formations under Zone 2; and eight hundred and sixty-nine

participants representing 50.29% from police formations under Zone 12.

4.4 INSTRUMENTATION

The main instrument of this study was Police Psycho-Demographic Factor Assessment Battery (PPFAB)

which consisted of two parts. Part A of the instrument requires the provision of bio-demographic information.

This includes gender, age, years of experience and educational qualification. Part B of the instrument

consisted of six sub-scales used to collect the necessary information for this study. They are the following:

Police Stress Scale. This scale is adopted from Aremu (2009)’s police stress scale. The scale has twelve items

with response’ options ranging from very much like me to not at all like me on five likert format. The

minimum and maximum obtainable scores are respectively 12 and 60. The internal consistency of the scale

was re-established by this study and it returned a Cronbach coefficient alpha of 0.76.

Police Perceived Organisational Commitment Scale. This is adopted from Aremu (2009). The scale has

eight items with response’ options ranging from very much like me to not at all like me on five likert format.

The minimum and maximum obtainable scores are respectively 8 and 40. The internal consistency of the scale

was established by this study and it returned a Cronbach coefficient alpha of 0.81.

Psychological Well-being Scale. This is a modified version of Ryff’s (1989) scale. The scale consists of

twelve items with response’ options ranging from very much like me to not at all like me on five likert

format. The minimum and maximum obtainable marks are 12 and 60 respectively. The internal consistency of

the scale was established by this study and it returned a Cronbach coefficient alpha of 0.74.

Police Work-Motivation Scale. This is a self-developed instrument. It contains nine items with response’

options ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree on five likert format. The minimum and maximum

obtainable scores are respectively 9 and 45. The internal consistency of the scale was established in the course

of this study and it returned a Cronbach coefficient alpha of 0.85.

Police Self-Efficacy Scale. This is adopted from Aremu (2009). The scale has ten items. The response’

options ranging from very much like me to not at all like me on five likert format. The minimum and

maximum obtainable scores are 10 and 50. The internal consistency of the scale was re-established by this

study and it returned a Cronbach coefficient alpha of 0.69.




Emotional Labour Scale. This scale is a modified version of Schaible (2006). The scale has ten items with

the response’ options ranging from very much like me to not at all like me on five likert format. The

minimum and maximum obtainable scores are respectively 10 and 50. The internal consistency of the scale

was re-established by this study and it returned a Cronbach coefficient alpha of 0.87.

4.5 PROCEDURE

The investigator visited the two zonal command, five state command and twenty-four area command offices.

In each of these offices, the people who were willing to participate were given the instrument. The

investigator went back for collection of the instruments 24 hours after their distribution to the participants.

4.6 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

Multiple Regression Analysis was used to analyse the generated data. Multiple Regression analysis was used

because it avails the the estimation of percentage of contribution of the independent variables to variation in

the dependent variable, the significance of the contribution as well as the relative contribution of each of the

depenedent variables to the prediction of the dependent variable.

5. RESULTS

5.1 RESEARCH QUESTION ONE

Are there significant relationships between each of the indepedent variables and the dependent variable

Table 1: Table Showing the Mean, Standard Deviation and P.P.M.C. Scores of Each of the Independent

Variables and the Dependent Variable

Variable No Mean St. Dev Df r. Cal. r. Critical Sig.

Gender 1728 1.57 0.5 3454 0.13 0.2 N. S.

Work-stress 1728 44.56 2.66

Age 1728 36.13 6.35 3454 0.34 0.2 0.05**

Work-stress 1728 44.56 2.66

Years of

Experience 1728 22.56 3.00

3454 0.34 0.2 0.05**

Work-stress 1728 44.56 2.66

Educational

Qualification 1728 3.47 1.64

3454 0.43 0.2 0.05**

Work-stress 1728 44.56 2.66

Self-Efficacy 1728 36.51 2.76 3454 0.2 0.2 0.05**

Work-stress 1728 44.56 2.66

Work

motivation 1728 36.87 3.35

3454 0.71 0.2 0.05**

Work-stress 1728 44.56 2.66

Emotional

Labour 1728 34.12 4.91

3454 0.27 0.2 0.05**

Work-stress 1728 44.56 2.66

Psychological

Well-being 1728 36.01 2.48

3454 0.81 0.2 0.05**

Work-stress 1728 44.56 2.66




The tables shows the result obtained while answering research question one. From the table, it is shown that

there is no significant relationship between gender and work-stress (r. calculated = 0.13, df = 3454 and P >

0.05). It is also disclosed from the table that there is significant relationship between age and work-stress (r.

calculated = 0.34, df = 3454 and P < 0.05). The table also shows that there is significant relationship between

years of experience and work stress (r. calculated = 0.34, df = 3454 and P < 0.05). It is indicated in the table

that there is significant relationship between educational qualification and work-stress (r. calculated = 0.43, df

= 3454 and P < 0.05). Significant relationship was found between self-efficacy and work-stress (r. calculated

= 0.20, df = 3454 and P < 0.05). It is shown from the table that there is significant relationship between work

motivation and work-stress (r. calculated = 0.71, df = 3454 and P < 0.05). Emotional labour is also indicated

in the table to be significantly related to work-stress (r. calculated = 0.27, df = 3454 and P < 0.05). The table

shows that psychological well-being is significantly related to work-stress (r. calculated = 0.81, df = 3454 and

P < 0.05). From the table, all the independent variables except gender had significant relationship with work-

stress of Nigeria Police in South-western Nigeria.

5.2 RESEARCH QUESTION TWO

What is the joint contribution of the independent variables to the prediction of the dependent variable?

Table 2: Composite Effect of Psycho-demographic Factors on Police Work-Stress

R = 0.552

R Square = 0.305

Adjusted R Square = 0.301

Standard Error of Estimate = 6.039

Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Significance

Regression 27458.183 8 3432.273 94.119 .000

Residual 62687.636 1719 36.468

Total 90145.819 1727

Table 2 shows that the multiple Regression (R) indicating the joint contribution of the independent variables

(age, sex, years of experience, educational qualification, self-efficacy, motivation, emotional labour and

psychological well-being) to the prediction of the dependent variable (work-stress) is 0.552, the R Square is

0.305, Adjusted R Square is 0.301 and Standard Error of Estimate is 6.039. This implies that the predictors

accounted for 30.1 percent of the variance in work stress of personnel of Nigeria Police. Further verification

using regression analysis of variance (ANOVA) produced F (8, 1719) = 94.119; P < 0.05). This indicates that

the independent variables jointly made a significant contribution to the prediction of work-stress of personnel

of Nigeria Police.

5.3 RESEARCH QUESTION THREE

What are the relative contributions of each of the independent variables to the prediction of the dependent

variable?




Table 3: Relative Contribution of the Independent Variables to the Prediction of the Dependent Variable

Variables Unstandardized Coefficient

Standardized

Coefficient Rank T P

B Std. Error Beta

(Constant) 131.535 2.896 45.424 0.000

Gender 0.008 0.010 0.018 8th 0.792 0.428

Age 0.736 0.08 0.137 7th 9.153 0.000

Years of

Experience -0.450 0.025 -0.710 4th 18.297 0.000

Educational

Qualification -0.526 0.040 -0.344 6th 13.214 0.000

Self-efficacy 1.521 0.054 1.577 1st 28.251 0.000

Work

motivation 1.318 0.051 1.133 2nd 25.942 0.000

Emotional

Labour -0.472 0.031 -0.872 5th 15.192 0.000

Psychological

well-being -0.941 0.039 -0.807 3rd 24.049 0.000

Table 3 shows the result obtained from answering research question three. From the table, it is shown that B

values range from -0.941 to 131.535, standard error values range from 0.01 to 2,896, Beta values range from -

0.807 to 1.133 and t. values range from 0.79 to 45.424. from the table, seven out of eight independent

variables (age, years of experience, educational qualification, self-efficacy, work motivation, emotional

labour and psychological well-being) made a significant relative contribution to the prediction of work-stress

among personnel of Nigeria Police in South-western Nigeria. In addition to this, self-efficacy made the

highest relative contribution to the prediction of corruption among personnel of Nigeria Police. This is

followed by work motivation and psychological well-being. Gender made the least relative contribution to the

prediction of work-stress among Nigeria Police personnel. This is followed by age and educational

qualification.

6. DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

An aspect of the finding of this study shows that the eight psycho-social factors had significant composite

effect on the prediction of work-stress of Nigeria Police. It was also discovered that the independent variables

compositely accounted for 30.1% of the variance in the work-stress of Nigeria Police which is the dependent

variable. This indicates that the psycho-demographic factors are significant joint predictors of work-stress of

Nigeria Police. This finding support the position of Abe (1995) which observed that the totality of a man

could be understood by examining his psychological and social variables. Put differently, the social and

psychological attributes of human-beings could serve as a formidable platform upon which any of their

behavioural traits could be understood. Furthermore, the finding also support by the observation of Aremu

(2006) which showed that gender, age, length of service, rank, marital status and level of education had

significant effect on stress level of sampled police personnel. This also attests to the fact that psycho-social




factors were good predictors of work-stress of Nigeria Police. This means that if the self-efficacy, work-

motivation, emotional labour and psychological well-being of Nigeria Police are enhanced, there is high

possibility for reduction of their work-stress.

Another aspect of the findings shows that seven out of eight independent variables of the study (age, years of

experience, educational qualification, self-efficacy, work motivation, Emotional labour and psychological

well-being) had significant relative contribution to the prediction of work-stress Nigeria Police in South-

western Nigeria. Self-efficacy and motivation had the highest relative effects on the work-stress of personnel

of Nigeria Police in south-western Nigeria. Gender, age and educational qualification had the least relative

effects on the work-stress of personnel of Nigeria Police in south-western Nigeria. This finding shows that

when the psycho-social factors are taken individually, self-efficacy had the greatest effect on the police work-

stress. This was followed by work motivation and psychological well-being. In line with this, by gender, age

and educational qualification made the least contribution to the prediction of work-stress among Nigeria

Police personnel. This finding support the previous finding of Grizzle (2009) which observed that there was

significant relationship between self-efficacy and work-stress. The findings of Otis and Pelletier (2005) which

observed significant relationship between work motivation and work-stress is also supported by this finding.

Furthermore, the finding also butressed the previous finding of Chen, et. al. (2009) which showed that

psychological well-being significantly predicted work-stress. This means that the more efficacious a police

personnel is the better he/she will be able to handle stress emanating from his/her work. The quantity and

quality of psychological well-being of police personnel determined their work-stress in such a way that

personnel with high psychological well-being would have low work-stress and vice-versa.

The implication of the findings of this study is that psycho-demographic factors are significant composite

predictors of work-stress of Nigeria Police. This also suggests that psycho-demographic factors occupy a

vantage position in the understanding and management of work-stress among Nigeria Police personnel. This

means that the key to effective and efficient management of work-stress among Nigeria Police could be found

in the proper manipulation of the psycho-demographic factors.

It is recommended, based on the finding of this study, that government and police organisation should

endeavour to find means of managing psychological attributes (such as Police self-efficacy, work-motivation,

emotional labour, psychological well-being, work-stress, e.t.c) of their employees. This is based on the fact

that management of these attributes will go along way in managing their work-stress. This could be done by

establishing behavioural clinics in all the police formations throughout the country. This will afford the

diagnosis of the behavioural problems among the police employees. The right and conducive environment

should be created for police personnel. This might reduce their work-stress amd enhance their productivity.

The authority of Nigeria Police should reform the police organisation in such a way that it will be more

personnel friendly.




The public should also change their perception of police. The police personnel stand a better chance of

contributing more to the attainment of the constitutional objective of their organisation if they are better and

more positively perceived by the members of public. The present negative perceptions of police by public

cannot but aggravate their work-stress and this could widen the gap between police and attainment of their

organisational goals.

It is suggested that the subsequent studies on this or similar topic should afford to extend the scope of this

study. This study is conducted in the South-Western Nigeria using two out of the twelve zonal commands of

Nigeria Police. The other commands should be considered in studies ahead on this or similar topic.

The suggestions also include the fact that more psychological and demographic factors should be considered

by future studies. This study took into consideration four psychological and four demographic factors. This

can be improved upon by researchers who would be interested in the conduct of the study in the time to come.

Experimental studies on this or similar topics should also be given an attention by future investigator.

Establishing the cause and effect relationship by manipulation of some of the independent variables of this

study and observe the effect on the dependent variable is desirable. The present study attempted the

establishment of predictive effect of the independent variables on the dependent variable.

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Psycho-social Factors as predictors of work stress among Nigeria Police in South-west, Nigeria

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