Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

FATE OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS

Christophe Darnault, Şemsa Canbulat, Ismet Canbulat, Sema Camcı Çetin,

Funda Çimen, Ayten Karaca, Yasemin Kavdir, Hasan Öztürk, Burcu Parlak,

Sonay Sözüdoğru Ok, Cafer Türkmen, and Philippe Baveye

This section covers studies published during the calendar year 2002 on the fate of

environmental pollutants in soils, surface waters and groundwaters. Studies related

to water quality and sources of pollution by environmental pollutants as well as

reaction kinetics and modeling are reviewed in detail. Also included in the coverage

of the present review is research on pollutants such as nutrients, xenobiotics,

pathogens, metals, biomakers, and radionuclides, as well as studies related to

sewage sludge disposal and mine tailing.

NUTRIENTS

Nitrate and Nitrogen

Effects of changes in agricultural management practices during the past century on

nitrogen (N) contents in midwestern soils were studied by Dinnes et al. (2002).

Types of research and management practices needed to reduce the potential for

nonpoint nitrate (NO3) leaching into water were also identified. Strategies for

reducing NO3 loss through drainage include improved timing of N application at

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

appropriate rates, using soil tests and plant monitoring, diversifying crop rotations,

using cover crops, reducing tillage, optimizing N application techniques, and using

nitrification inhibitors. Based on current experiences, a combination of two or more

management practices may work in harmony to reduce NO3 loss to field drainage,

and make implementation of the practices more cost effective. One example would

be to establish a perennial cash crop that could also function as a tile drainage line

biofilter by growing the crop directly above subsurface drainage lines. The perennial

crop may be able to remove NO3 from the water as it flows toward the drainage lines.

An income-producing biofilter such as this would reduce the farmer's costs for

achieving compliance and accelerate adoption of management practices that more

effectively mitigate NO3 contamination of water resources.

To identify sources of nitrate in water, Spruill et al. (2002) developed and

demonstrated the potential of a simple predictive classification procedure for

environmental scientists and regulators. The classification-tree models demonstrated

that they are useful in identifying variables that are important in the source-

identification process and that 15N, dissolved calcium, magnesium, sodium,

potassium, nitrate, ammonia, and zinc are potentially useful in identifying dominant

nitrate sources in groundwater in sandy recharge areas of the Coastal Plain. Anions

were not identified in the modeling process as important in discriminating nitrate

sources in the study area. Classification-tree models appear to classify sources at a

level of reliability that can be practically useful. 15N appeared to be a reliable

indicator under conditions where other chemical indicators would not be as effective.

Inclusion of 15N in analyses is almost always advantageous for identification of

sources and in establishing model plausibility.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

To quantify groundwater denitrification in discrete locations of riparian aquifers, Addy

et al. (2002) modified and evaluated an in situ method based on conservative tracers

and 15N-enriched nitrate. Groundwater was "pushed" (injected) into a mini-

piezometer and then "pulled" (extracted) from the same mini-piezometer after an

incubation period. The method is powerful and results are not affected by dilution or

degassing from groundwater to soil air. Advantages of this method were that site

instrumentation with multiple replicates was relatively easy, in situ design provided

only minimal soil and hydrological disturbance, both 15N2O and 15N2 can be isolated

to measure directly in situ denitrification.

The respective importance of the vegetative cover and the hydromorphic gradient

were characterized as factors limiting denitrification during seasons (Clement et al.,

2002). Regardless of the season, the vegetation type or the lateral position along

each topohydrosequence in the riparian wetlands, strong significant gradients of both

in situ and potential denitrification rates were measured within a soil profile. Results

confirm that the upper organic soil horizon is the most active when in contact with the

groundwater. In deeper soil horizons, denitrification activity was low (from 0.004 to

0.5 mg N kg-1 dry soil d-1), but contributed significantly to the reduction of

groundwater NO3- load along the riparian groundwater flowpath (from 9.32 to 0.98 mg

NO3–N L-1). In situ denitrification rates in the forested, vegetation and grass sites

were not significantly different. Result emphasized the importance of the topography

of the valley rather than the vegetation cover in controlling denitrification activity in

riparian wetlands.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

McIsaac et al. (2002) compared recently published approaches for relating terrestrial

N inputs to the Mississippi River basin with measured nitrate flux in the lower

Mississippi River. The model, using N inputs in fertilizer, sewage, and atmospheric

NO3 deposition, produced annual riverine nitrate fluxes estimates that were highly

correlated with observed annual nitrate fluxes in the lower Mississippi River from

1960 to 1996, but it tended to overestimate low annual nitrate fluxes and

underestimate large nitrate fluxes. It was concluded that although the (Net

Anthropogenic Nitrogen Inputs) NANI approach does not address several processes

that influence the N cycle, it appears to focus on the terms that can be estimated with

reasonable certainty and that are correlated with riverine N flux. Paramasivam et al.

(2002) evaluated the measured concentrations of NO3–N and Br- at various depths

with those predicted by the Leaching Estimation and Chemistry Model (LEACHM).

Four application rates of N (28, 56, 84, and 112 kg N ha-1), and 80 kg Br- ha-1 to a

sandy Entisol with 25-yr-old citrus trees were performed. The LEACHM data showed

that 21 to 36% of applied fertilizer N leached below the root zone, while tree uptake

accounted for 40 to 53%.

Analyses of trends in flow, sediment, phosphorus and nitrogen were performed for

the Maumee and Sandusky Rivers and for two tributaries to the Sandusky River,

Rock and Honey Creeks, using daily average concentrations covering the period

1975–1995. Flow increased at three of the four stations. Total suspended solids

decreased and ranged from 18 to 53% over the 21-year period. Soluble reactive

phosphorus decreased by 72 to 88%, whereas total phosphorus decreased by 29 to

58% over the 21-year period. Nitrate showed no significant trend in the larger basins,

and significant trends in opposite directions in the two smaller watersheds. Total

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Kjeldahl nitrogen decreased significantly at all stations; decreases ranged from 14 to

57% over the 21-year period. Comparisons using nonparametric, nonlinear trend fits

(LOWESS) suggested that changes in fertilizer and manure application rates were

the most important cause of trends in phosphorus and total Kjeldahl nitrogen, point

sources were insufficient to account for the phosphorus trends (Richards and Baker,

2002).

Clark et al. (2002) tried to figure out which agricultural activities in the Lake Manatee

watershed contributed to nutrient loading and algal blooms of the reservoir. No

strong correlation with agricultural activity in the watershed was demonstrated. Data

from water sampling stations with neighboring citrus fields did appear to have higher

fluctuating N03-N concentrations than data from stations reflecting primarily row crop

areas. Increasing trend in N03-N levels at the 10% level of significance for the 10

year sampling period have been observed.

Unacceptable levels of N03 leaching to groundwater and drainage systems can

occur under corn (Zea mays L.). The irrigated area in a semiarid region in the Ebro

Valley (northeast Spain) showed groundwater pollution by nitrates. Monitoring soil

NO3–N profiles showed that in some fields, soil NO3–N was transported to deeper

layers in the soil during the growing season (Villar-Mir et al., 2002). Logsdon et al.

(2002) used cover crops to reduce NO3 leaching. The soil monoliths were useful for

showing that oat and rye cover crops in a corn-soybean rotation can reduce NO3

leaching from lysimeters and suggested that the same trend would be true in the

field. Winter cover crops were also effective to reduce nitrate leaching under irrigated

desert conditions. Soil NH4 and NO3 increased following over-wintering cover crops

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

by potato planting, providing timely increases in N availability to the potato crop.

Winter cover crops can improve N cycling and reduce the amount of N below the root

zone in potato-based rotations. (Weinert et al., 2002). Results from Ontario in

Canada showed that the fertilized continuous corn produced 15.2 mg N l-1, fertilized

rotation corn produced 18.0 2 mg N l-1 and second year fertilized alfalfa treatment

produced 16.2 mg N l-1 in 3-year flow weighted mean nitrate concentrations in tile

drainage water, all of which exceed the Canadian and European drinking water

guideline values of 10 and 11.3 mg N l-1. The 3-year cumulative nitrate losses were

high at 82.0 kg N ha-1 for fertilized continuous corn, 99.9 kg N ha-1 for fertilized

rotation corn and 69.8 kg N ha-1for second year fertilized alfalfa (Tan et al., 2002).

According to the Environment Agency in 2000, 5.6% (173 of 3,374) of tested wells

and 4.7% (64 of 1,362) of wells used for drinking water exceeded the NO3-N

standard level in 1999 in Japan. The highest value of NO3-N in the wells was 100 mg

l-1. In the east district of the Kagamigahara city, NO3-N concentration was low in

1966, but reached 27.5 mg l-1in 1974. The farmers in this district began to reduce the

nitrogen fertilizers in carrot cultivation, going from 256 kg N ha-1 in 1970 to 153 kg N

ha-1 in 1991. It was concluded that in order to decrease the NO3-N pollution of

groundwater, it was necessary to refocus not only agricultural technology but also

agricultural policy, toward sustainable agriculture and rural development

(Kumazawa, 2002).

A case study was carried out in three towns of southern Hokkaido in Japan (Woli et

al., 2002). The estimation of N budgets using an N flow model indicated that the

highest disposal N (880 Mg N /yr) was generated in the town where intensive poultry

farming was dominant. The disposal N was much lower in the dairy cattle farming

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

and the race horse farming town (102 and 71 Mg N /yr), respectively. The linear

regression analysis indicated that NO3-N concentration in stream water was

significantly correlated with the proportion of upland field in drainage basins.

Intensively managed and fertilized golf courses can cause soil and water

contamination. To reduce soil and water contamination in golf courses, Shuman

(2002) suggested that irrigation after fertilization should be held to a minimum to

prevent runoff. Fertilizer should not be applied when soil moisture is near or above

field capacity and not applied when intense rainfall is expected. Nitrate N will initially

be low in runoff water when the ammonia form is applied, however this amount

increases with time as the ammonia is converted to nitrate. Contour strip and

agroforestry management practices effectively reduced nonpoint-source pollution in

runoff from a corn–soybean rotation in the clay pan soils of northeastern Missouri.

(Udawatta et al., 2002).

Boyer et al. (2002) examined relationships between anthropogenic N inputs and

riverine N export. Agriculture, through total effect of fertilizer use, fixation in crop

lands and animal feed imports was the largest source of N. Riverine N output was

well correlated with inputs. This study showed how human activities impact N cycling

in northeast region of USA. To find the relationship of amount of runoff, elevation and

watershed area, watersheds of the US Geological Survey’s Hydrologic Benchmark

Network program were used for estimation of annual yield of total nitrogen and

nitrogen fractions (ammonium, nitrate, dissolved organic N, particulate N), (Lewis,

2002). Annual N yield increased as runoff increased and yields of total nitrogen and

nitrogen fractions were strongly related to runoff. Seitzinger et al. (2002) developed a

regression model (RivR-N) for predicting the proportion of N transferred from

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

streams and reservoirs. Reservoirs had a minimal effect on N removal in the model

prediction. A predictive model was developed using published data for relating the

physical and hydraulic properties of rivers and lakes, estimating riverine N removal

by applying model in sixteen drainage networks in the eastern US and investigating

the effect of various watershed and river properties on N removal in the drainage

network.

Prego (2002) examined inorganic and organic nitrogen fluxes in the Ria Vigo to

understand the nitrogen budget and the biogeochemical response to eutrophication.

In winter, the residual circulation was high, in spring there was a phytoplankton

bloom and half of the inorganic nitrogen utilized by photosynthesis was ammonium.

Mayer et al. (2002) investigated sources of nitrate in rivers draining sixteen

watersheds in the US by using isotopic techniques to identify nitrogen sources and to

describe nitrogen transformations in terrestrial and aquatic environments. Isotopic

composition of nitrate is a powerfull tool to determine nitrogen sources and can also

provide knowledge about nitrogen transformations such as ammonia volatilization

and denitrification. It was showed that the main sources of riverine nitrate was land

use. In addition, they indicated that riverine nitrate was derived from soil nitrification

processes. The major source of riverine nitrate was waste water and minor source of

riverine nitrate was manure. Urban land use and agricultural use were significant

source of riverine nitrate. Jimenez-Montealegie et al. (2002) studied the integration

of knowledge about nitrogen transformations in fish ponds into a model. The amount

of different N-compounds in the water column and sediment were calculated to

provide a better understanding of the nitrogen dynamics in fish ponds.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

The temporal changes and spatial variability of phosphorus and nitrogen from forest

and agricultural areas in Finland from 1980s to 1990s were studied by Vuorenmaa et

al. (2002). Nitrogen losses were greater from agricultural areas than from forested

areas. Losses were eight times higher in total nitrogen and twelve times higher in

total phosphorus in agricultural areas than in forested areas.

A study was conducted by Karl et al. (2002) to understand the biotic sources and

rates of N2 fixation in the world’s ocean, the major factors to control the rates of

oceanic N2 fixation, the importance of N2 fixation for the global carbon cycle and the

effectiveness of human activities in the variation of oceanic N2 fixation. The results

showed that rates of N2 fixation had a major role in the global marine N budget, iron

bioavailability was an important control for global rates of N2 fixation, human

activities causing habitat destruction and eutrophication might change N2 fixation in

coastal environments, warming in the upper water column enhanced open ocean N2

fixation and global anthropogenic and climatic changes might affect N2 fixation rates.

An evaluation of the Lake Whatcom eleven years set of data was performed to

assess trophic state and nutrient limitation (Matthews et al., 2002). At the end of the

summer, algal biomass correlated best with dissolved inorganic nitrogen and total

phosphorus.

Phosphate and Phosphorus

In recent decades, studies showed that emissions (gaseous, liquid, solid) were the

cause of environmental concern and were responsible for major global

reorganizations of the biogeochemical cycles (Mackenzie et al, 2002). A model

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

calculation (TOTEM) underlining the role of human-induced perturbations in

changing world climate, particularly the role of anthropogenic nitrogen and

phosphorus in global carbon cycle duration of 1850-2035 was presented. After end

of the 1940’s nitrogen and phosphorus emissions sequestered in the terrestrial

phytomass and groundwater. For the next 35 years, increase of global population

and changing temperature would be the same. Using more and more fertilizer in the

terestrial systems and changing land use would result in rising global temperature.

Gray and Henry (2002) examined before and after biosolids application, the pattern

and extent of P and N runoff from a constant stream draining watershed. There was

no proof of direct runoff of P and N from biosolids into surface water. Shammon and

Hartnoll (2002) examined relationships between the fractions of total dissolved

nitrogen and phosphorus by using winter and summer water column profiles in the

Irish Sea. During the summer, inorganic nitrogen concentrations decreased whereas

dissolved organic nitrogen concentration increased. There was little seasonal

variation for dissolved organic phosphorus.

Healy and Cawley (2002) examined the performance of waste treatment of a

constructed surface-flow wetland system in terms of nutrient (N and P) reduction in

Ireland. The N and P mass balances indicated that average reduction over the two-

year investigation period was 51% for total N and 13% for total P. When total P

removal increased, algal bloom formation decreased in the growing season.

Nutrient Dynamics

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Increase of nitrate and sulfate content in the fresh water resulted from oxygen

depletion in water due to increase in acid and nutrient loads (Liikanen et al. 2002).

Oxygen depletion might affect carbon turnover and the dynamics of greenhouse

gases (ie. CO2, CH4 and N2O). The effects of O2, NO3 and SO4 availability on carbon

mineralization and fluxes of CO2, CH4 and N2O were examined in a hyper-eutrophic

sediment, Finland. The results showed that carbon mineralization rate was not

affected by the oxidants. However, oxidants changed carbon degradation pathways

and also depressed CH4 fluxes in the shallow profundal sediment with low organic

matter content. Availabilities of O2, NO3 and SO4 had only minor effects on the global

carbon mineralization rates in sediments, but these regulated the degradation

pathways. In a lysimeter study, exchangeable P was significantly greater in

preferential flow areas compared to unstained soil matrix (Sinaj et al., 2002). This

result could be explained by accumulation of organic C and P, and by preferential

flow areas enhancing Al- and Fe-oxides leaching which may be the cause of decline

P sorption. P losses from soil was observed as the result of P mobility in the topsoil.

XENOBIOTICS

Atrazine

A field study was conducted to evaluate potential agrichemical transport to

groundwater through coastal plain soils in Georgia for four years (Bosch and

Truman, 2002). Peak pesticide concentrations in groundwater were observed after

following periods of excess precipitation. However atrazine concentration in

groundwater did not exceed the EPA maximum contaminant levels of 3 ppb. In order

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

to determine presence of atrazine in groundwater of Vojvodina Province (Yugoslavia)

110 water samples were taken from near surface aquifers and analysed (Pucarevic

et al., 2002). Detected average atrazine concentration was 0.198 g/L. Atrazine and

ametryne extensively used in sugar cane fields were monitored in groundwater of

Barbados for dry and wet seasons. The measured levels of atrazine in groundwater

showed a relatively small fraction that may have leached from the annual application.

Although these levels in general were higher than those reported in the literature,

lower application rates of atrazine should be considered to preserve the quality of

potable water on the island (Wood et al., 2002a). Tappe et al. (2002) reported that

atrazine was the most frequently applied herbicide in cultivated areas of Germany

until it was prohibited in 1991. However, atrazine and its metabolites are still

detected in near surface groundwater with a slight decrease; although increasing

concentration in some aquifers are observed. They concluded that this might be due

to wash-outs from the pools of atrazine and its metabolites from the soil into the

groundwater or continuing illegal applications.

Runoff from agricultural watersheds was found to carry enormous amounts of

pesticides. The effects of surface runoff on the transport of organic chemicals to

groundwater was investigated at low land and upland site in sandy soils (Delin and

Landon, 2002). After application of water, representing a natural precipitation to both

sites, runoff was quantified only at the low land site. Runoff of water to the lowland

site played a dual role by diluting chemical concentrations in the unsaturated zone as

well as increasing the concentrations at the water table, compared to the upland site.

Concentrations of chloride, nitrate and atrazine plus metabolites were detected

noticeably at a greater concentration at the water table than in the unsaturated zone

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

at both sites. Results of the experiment illustrated the effects of heterogeneity and

the complexity of evaluating chemical transport through the unsaturated zone.

Runoff and drainage losses of atrazine, metribuzin, and metolachlor were

investigated in three water management systems: free drainage (D), controlled

drainage (CD) and controlled drainage with subsurface irrigation (CDS) (Gaynor et

al., 2002). Less herbicide was lost by surface runoff from the D and CD treatments

than from CDS. The half-life of atrazine was not affected by water management.

The sorption behavior and mechanisms of six commonly used pesticides, including

atrazine, on soil were investigated using the batch equilibrium technique and

reported that adsorption processes could be described by a two-step isotherm curve

for atrazine (Konda et al., 2002a). Coquet and Barriuso (2002) studied the

adsorption of four herbicides (atrazine, isoproturon, metamitron and trifluralin) on the

topsoil of a 135 ha catchment in the north of France. Kds of each herbicide were

highly correlated to the organic carbon content of the soils. Implications of Kd spatial

variability in terms of pesticide fate modelling and pedotransfer functions

development for risk assessment were discussed.

A method for the analysis of atrazine and its degradation products at levels of low

nanograms per liter in water has been developed by Ren and Jiang (2002). In this

method, environmental water samples collected from deep wells and reservoir near

a plant produced atrazine were analysed using HPLC/ APCIMS instead of LC-MS.

The results showed that atrazine concentrations in most surface samples were

above the limit of China Surface Water Regulation (3 g/L). Konda et al., (2002b) in

their study evaluated the feasibility of extracting organic pesticides (acetochlor,

atrazine, diazinon, carbendazim, imidacloprid, and isoproturon) in soil using a hot-

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

water percolation apparatus and compared it to the traditional batch equilibrium

method in terms of desorbed amount of pesticides from soil and extraction time.

Desorbed quantities by hot-water percolation were correlated with those of the

conventional soil testing method and average extraction time was shorter for hot-

water extraction compared to the traditional batch method. Another method which is

rapid, sensitive and convenient for the determination of atrazine and four

organophosphorus pesticides in small (10 ml) samples of groundwater using solid

phase microextraction (SPME) fiber and gas chromatography with selected-ion

monitoring (SIM) has been developed by Tomkins and Ilgner (2002). This method

was found to be ideal for “quick turn” determinations reducing the sample-to-sample

analysis time of approximately 30 min. Carabias-Martinez et al. (2002) also

developed an another method based on solid phase extraction (SPE) for the

simultaneous preconcentration of three widely used herbicides (atrazine, terbutryne

and chlorotoluron) and their metabolites in surface and groundwaters from

agricultural zones of the provinces of Salamanca and Zamora (Spain).

Preconcentration step was performed using different types of sorbents. The best

results were obtained with the styrene-divinylbenzene cartridge.

The bacterium Pseudomonas sp. strain ADP (P.ADP) possesses genes encoding

atrazine mineralization on the self-transmissible plasmid pADP. Clausen et al. (2002)

examined this ability of the strain to mineralize atrazine in aquifer sediment under

both aerobic and anaerobic conditions at 10 °C. Their findings showed a potential for

bioaugmentation using P.ADP at both conditions and the use of cPCR as a tool for

monitoring the bacteria independently from culture. Biodegradation of atrazine in a

contaminated groundwater was achieved by delivery of oxygen using an in situ

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

polymer mat system (Patterson et al., 2002). The polymer mats proved to be efficient

in delivering dissolved oxygen to anaerobic groundwater. Large-scale column

experiment results indicated dissolved oxygen concentration increased from < 0.2

mg/L to approximately 4 mg/L. Spatial variability in degradation and mineralization of

atrazine as well as isoproturon in subsurface samples taken from sandy loam soils

overlying gravel terraces which form part of a grounwater protection zone were

investigated (Wood et al., 2002b). Unlabelled and ring-C-14-labelled atrazine were

added to samples obtained from 11 boreholes. All samples showed the potential to

degrade these herbicides, although the percentage of degradation decreased from

the surface soil to a depth of 3 m. The capacity of samples to mineralize atrazine to

carbon dioxide decreased markedly with depth, with no mineralization potential

observed at a depth of 80 cm.

Angier et al. (2002) studied the influence of a riparian wetland on nitrate and

herbicides exported from an agricultural field within the watershed. According to the

results, atrazine degradation products appeared to penetrate more readily through

the most active upwelling zones and there was a correlation between zones of high

nitrate and high atrazine metabolite levels. Model predictions are commly used to

simulate movement of pesticide through the soil profile. Azevedo et al., (2002)

suggested that RZWQM (Root Zone Water Quality Model) could be used when

properly calibrated to simulate the movement of water and atrazine through the soil

profile for Portuguese conditions. A laboratory investigation was conducted to

examine the effect of detergents on transport of atrazine through two different soil

under saturation conditions (Abu-Zreig and Rudra, 2002). The Convection

Dispersion Equation (CDE) was used to model and quantify the effects of detergents

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

on atrazine. The results indicated that the CDE model was not successful in

predicting atrazine transport in the presence of surfactants at high concentrations.

The retardation factor and attenuation factor were two site-specific pesticide

numbers, frequently used as screening indicator indexes for pesticide groundwater

contamination potential. Paraiba and Spadotto (2002) suggested that in calculating

attenuation and retardation factors the soil temperature at different depths should be

considered in order to understand the potential pesticide groundwater contamination

under different weather conditions.

The effect of a restored riparian forest buffer system (RFBS) on transport of two

herbicides, atrazine and alachlor was studied over a one year period (Vellidis et al.,

2002). Herbicides were applied above a restored 3-zone riparian buffer system in

April of 1993 and 1994. The findings showed that the restored riparian forest buffer

had similar effects on herbicide transport as a mature buffer.

Pesticides and PCBs

Dabrowski (2002) found that rainfall-induced runoff resulted in an increase in the

levels of the pesticides endosulfan, deltamethrin, azinphos-methyl, chlorpyrifos and

procymidone into the Lourens River, South Africa. In the case of flowing waters the

pesticide residues may travel long distances to cause contamination up to distal

ends. Singh and Gupta (2002) determined that periodical changes in contamination

in tube well, open well and lake water around Jaipur, India. The kind of pesticides

residues and their concentrations present varied among the three kinds of water

bodies, as well as with time, from year to year. A study of Vogl and Henry (2002)

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

using Salton Sea sediments, demonstrated the absence of elevated concentrations

of organic chemicals commonly used in agriculture in earlier century, such as DDT.

Mukherjee and Gopal (2002) studied 15 organochlorine pesticides in drinking and

groundwater in Delhi, India. Although organochlorine pesticides were detected in the

ground and irrigation water samples, the levels of pesticides were below the

maximum contaminant levels as prescribed by WHO. No organochlorine insecticides

were detected in any of the drinking water samples.

Organochlorine pesticides with their primarily hydrophobic chemical properties

occurred as contaminants in estuarine lake systems, partitioned between water and

living and/or dead materials, with a greatest affinity for the solid phase. Water and

sediment samples collecting from Inner Anatolia lakes in Turkey showed that

organochlorine pesticides in sediment samples were generally higher than residue

levels in water samples (Barlas, 2002). Even if pesticides and PCBs are present only

in very low concentrations in the water, these are hazardous, because some species

of aquatic life are known to concentrate them. In the study of Macauley et al. (2002)

water, sediment, benthos, fish tissue samples were collected from South Florida

estuaries. Elevated concentrations of metals and pesticides were measured in both

sediments and fish tissue with some exceedances of guidance values. In surface

water, sediments and shrimps samples from Bay of Ohuira, Mexico, organochlorine

pesticide residues were detected. It was observed that the compounds had the

highest occurrence in sediment and shrimps, and that the same compounds were

also found in the surface water. It was suggested a relation between the benthonic

habitats of shrimps, by ingestion and absorption of the organic and inorganic metal

particles (Osuna-Flores and Riva, 2002). Water, sediment, red swamp crayfish

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

(Procambarus clarkii) and black bass (Micropterus salmoides) from Lake Naivasha

were analyzed for selected organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticide

residues by Gitahi et al. (2002). DDT residue levels were higher than previously

recorded.

Entry of pesticides into aquatic systems affected many non-target organisms

including fish and birds. Investigations in the Calleguas Creek watershed of Southern

California indicated that the pesticide diazinon was the probable cause of receiving

water toxicity to Ceriodaphnia (Anderson et al., 2002). And also Van den Brink et al.

(2002) report on the chronic effects of a mixture of insecticides chlorpyrifos and

lindan in freshwater microcosms. Cladocerans were the most susceptible group,

followed by Copepoda and Ostracoda.

MTBE/BTEX

Bioremediation of MTBE

The contamination of drinking water and groundwater by the gasoline additive methyl

tert-butyl ether (MTBE) is a serious problem especially since standard technologies

used for the decontamination of aqueous solutions are not effective for treatment of

MTBE and related alkyl ethers. O’Shea et al, (2002) used gamma radiolysis to

degrade aqueous MTBE/BTEX mixtures and the results were compared to kinetic

modeling predictions. It was observed that all the BTEX compounds were degraded

within 10 min while MTBE required irradiation times in excess of 30 min to

accomplish complete decomposition. The initial simulation of the degradation

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

kinetics based on a model containing the full set of water radiolysis reactions and

rate constants of the reactions of the generated hydroxyl radicals, hydrated

electrons, and hydrogen atoms with the MTBE, benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and

para-xylene, agreed well with the measured data, however, deviations at longer

irradiation times were seen. A second simulation, involving the grouping of the

MTBE/BTEX degradation products into a single class of N identical species and

using a rate constant for the hydroxyl radical with this species of 5.0 x109NM_1 s_1,

has led to excellent agreement with the observed experimental results even at longer

irradiation time.

The use of O-(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorobenzyl) hydroxylamine (PFBHA) derivatization

along with bis-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) or N,N-

(tertbutyldimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA) derivatisation is a popular

method to measure oxygenated organics in environmental and biological samples.

The derivatisation method enables the measurement of atmospheric photooxidation

products not detected by using other methods. PFBHA derivatization is often

conducted in an aqueous solution. Experiments were performed to compare the

efficiency of hexane, methyl-tert-butyl ether (MTBE), and dichloromethane (CH2Cl2)

for extraction of O-(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorobenzyl) hydroxylamine (PFBHA) derivatives

of carbonyl compounds from water. The stability of these compounds when stored at

4 °C in CH2Cl2 was determined, and commonly used methods for silylation of –OH

and –COOH groups on the PFBHA derivatives were compared. Overall, CH2Cl2 was

the most efficient solvent for extraction of PFBHA derivatives of hydroxycarbonyl

compounds, dicarbonyl compounds, and keto-acids from water. Derivatives of

carbonyl compounds that do not have secondary functional groups were extracted

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

with approximately equal efficiency by each of the three solvents examined. The

PFBHA derivatives of aromatic and saturated aliphatic carbonyl compounds and

hydroxycarbonyl compounds were stable in CH2Cl2 at 4 °C for 66 days whereas the

derivatives of keto-acids and unsaturated aliphatic aldehydes began to degrade after

approximately 38 days. Comparison of four procedures for bis-

(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) derivatization of –OH and –COOH groups

on PFBHA derivatives revealed that primary –OH groups reacted efficiently in 20–

100% BSTFA in CH2Cl2, and did not require a catalyst. Secondary –OH groups also

reacted efficiently in 20–100% BSTFA, but the reaction yield was improved slightly

when trimethylchlorosilane (TMCS) was added as a catalyst. Reaction of tertiary –

OH groups with BSTFA was very inefficient, but improved with addition of 10%

TMCS to the BSTFA solution. Finally, –COOH groups seemed to react most

efficiently and consistently in 100% BSTFA, without catalyst (Spaulding and Charles,

2002).

The industrial catalytic-distillation process for the production of methyl tert-butyl ether

(MTBE) from methanol and isobutylene was simulated by developing the process

model as a user modular on Aspen plus platform. The model utilized the Aspen plus

system and retained the characteristics of the self-designed model, which has been

verified in various scale-up processes. The experimentally determined reaction

kinetics was applied in the model. NRTL and Redlick–Kwong–Soave equations were

selected for the vapor–liquid equilibrium calculation. The NRTL binary interaction

parameters were estimated from the experimental data of the two-component vapor–

liquid equilibrium. Two typical industrial plants for the MTBE production, one using

the loose-stack-type package technology and the other using the bale-type package

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

technology in the catalytic-distillation column, were chosen as the sample processes

to demonstrate the validity of the model. The flowsheet simulations of the two

industrial plants were done on Aspen plus platform, in which the simulation of the

catalytic-distillation column used the developed user modular. The results showed

that fair agreements between the calculated and operating data were obtained (Bao

et al., (2002).

Bioremediation of BTEX

Two natural-gradient pulse tracer tests were conducted in a petroleum-contaminated

aquifer to evaluate the potential for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes

(BTEX) biodegradation under enhanced nitrate-reducing conditions. Addition of

nitrate resulted in loss of toluene, ethylbenzene, and m,p-xylenes (TEX) after an

initial lag period of approximately 9 days. Losses of benzene were not observed over

the 60-day monitoring period. Tracer breakthrough curves (BTCs) were analyzed to

derive transport and biodegradation parameters, including advective velocities,

retardation factors, dispersion coefficients, biodegradation rate constants, and nitrate

utilization ratios. Using the parameters derived from the BTC analysis, numerical

simulations of one of the tracer experiments were conducted. Simulations using the

BTC-derived transport and biodegradation parameters successfully reproduced

benzene, TEX, and nitrate concentrations measured during the tracer experiment.

Comparisons of observed and simulated nitrate concentrations indicated that the

mass ratio of nitrate-N utilized to TEX degraded increased over time during the

experiment, reaching values many times that the one expected based on

stoichiometry of TEX oxidation coupled to nitrate reduction. Excess nitrate loss was

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

likely due to oxidation of other organics in addition to TEX (Schreiber and Bahr,

2002).

Increased regulatory constraints on industrial releases of atmospheric volatile

organic compounds (VOCs) have resulted in an interest in using biofilters,

bioscrubbers and air/liquid membranes for treatment of vapor phase waste streams

(Attaway et al., 2002). The comparison of the use of two fundamentally different

types of membrane module systems that allow the rapid diffusion of vapor phase

aromatics and oxygen to an active biofilm for subsequent biodegradation were

described. One system used a commercial membrane module containing

microporous polypropylene fibers while the other used a nonporous silicone tubing

membrane module for the delivery of substrate (a mixture of benzene, ethylbenzene,

toluene, and xylenes [BTEX]) and electron acceptor (O2). Tests of the systems under

similar conditions with BTEX in the vapor feed stream showed significant

performance advantages for the silicone membrane system. The average surface-

area-based BTEX removal rate for the microporous membrane system over 500 h of

operation was 7.88 g h_1 cm2 while the rate for the silicone membrane system was

23.87 g h_1 cm2. The percentages of BTEX removal were also consistently better in

the silicone membrane system versus the microporous system.

A co-culture of two Pseudomonas putida isolates was enriched from sediment on a

mixture of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m-xylene, p-xylene, and o-xylene by

Attaway and Schmidt (2002). The co-culture readily degraded each of the

compounds present. Benzene, toluene, and ethylbenzene were used as growth

substrates by one isolate, while toluene, m-xylene, and p-xylene were used as

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

growth substrates by the other. Neither isolate could grow on o-xylene, but it was

removed in the presence of the other compounds presumably by co-metabolism.

The findings presented here support other reports in which constructed communities

were effectively used to degrade blends of between two and four of the components

of BTEX. However, here the co-culture of two P. putida isolates effectively degraded

a complete BTEX stream containing all six of the components.

Information on the type and amount of hazardous and toxic waste was required to

develop a meaningful strategy and estimate a realistic cost for clean up of the

Sydney Tar Pond site which is located on Cape Breton, in the province of Nova

Scotia, Canada. The materials of concern included BTEX (benzene, toluene,

ethylbenzene, and xylenes), PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), PCB

(polychlorinated biphenyl), and particulates laden with toxic metals, such as arsenic,

lead, and others. The originally nontoxic materials such as soil, blast furnace slag,

and vegetation, as well as surface and groundwaters, which were subsequently

contaminated, must also be included if failing the tests prescribed by environmental

regulations. An extensive sampling program must be undertaken to obtain data for

an accurate estimate of the waste to be cleaned and disposed of. Apparently,

700,000 tons of toxic waste, which is believed to be present on the site, may

represent only a fraction of the actual amount. The clean-up of the site is only part of

the solution. Toxic waste has to be disposed of in accordance with environmental

regulations (Furimsky, 2002).

The soil fungus Cladophialophora sp. strain T1 (= ATCC MYA-2335) was capable of

growth on a model water-soluble fraction of gasoline that contained all six BTEX

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

components (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and the xylene isomers). Benzene

was not metabolized, but the alkylated benzenes (toluene, ethylbenzene, and

xylenes) were degraded by a combination of assimilation and cometabolism.

Toluene and ethylbenzene were used as sources of carbon and energy, whereas the

xylenes were cometabolized to different extents. o-Xylene and m-xylene were

converted to phthalates as end metabolites; p-xylene was not degraded in complex

BTEX mixtures but, in combination with toluene, appeared to be mineralized. The

metabolic profiles and the inhibitory nature of the substrate interactions indicated that

toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene were degraded at the side chain by the same

monooxygenase enzyme. Prenafeta-Boldu et al., (2002) suggested that soil fungi

could contribute significantly to bioremediation of BTEX pollution.

METALS

Freshwater Environment

Worrall et al. (2002) monitored multi annual groundwater datasets from the UK and

Midwestern US to test the relative importance of site (e.g. land use, soil and aquifer

type) and chemical factors (e.g. solubility in water) and variations during the year of

control groundwater contamination for pesticides. Results from both the UK and US

datasets showed that chemical and site factors both had a statistically significant

influence on groundwater pollution and that interaction between site and chemical

factors represented the most important control on the occurrence of pesticides in

groundwater. The effect of the photosensitizer riboflavin on the fate of atrazine in a

freshwater environment was studied by Cui et al. (2002). It was found that at 100 M

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

riboflavin significantly enhanced the degradation of atrazine and more than 80% of

atrazine in a natural water environment was depleted in 72 h. The results also

showed that dealkylation and alkyl chain oxidation were involved in the degradation

of atrazine.

Trace metal (Al, Fe, As, Mo, Re, U, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Tl, and Zn)

concentration in, and stable sulfur isotopes in Holocene coastal peats and their

relation to pyrite formation were studied (Dellwig et al., 2002). The main Fe source

seemed to be the freshwater environment. The determination of dissolved and

particulate Fe of channels and small rivers close to the study area revealed a 50-fold

higher Fe content of the freshwater environment when compared with North Sea

water. The peat layers were also characterized by enrichments in redox-sensitive

trace metals (As, Mo, Re, U) and Cd, whereas Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Tl, and Zn

reflected the geogenic background. The remaining trace metals showed no distinct

trends, only Cr revealed a strong relation to the lithogenic detritus. Seawater was the

dominating source for As, Cd, Mo, Re, and U.

A major fraction of trace metals transported by rivers is associated with sediments,

especially during flooding, when erosion and resuspension increase sediment loads.

Trace metals and freshwater sediments and their potential remobilization upon

contact with seawater were investigated (Standring et al., 2002). Trace metals

showed different redistribution behavior, remobilization of Cd-109 by seawater was

significant and the least affected by sediment type, yet seawater remobilization of

Zn-65 and Mn-54 were significantly greater from the organic sediment compared to

the inorganic sediment.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Groundwater seepage from land to the marine environments could make significant

contribution. The seasonal cycles of stratification and circulation in the Thermaikos

Gulf Region were studies by Hyder et al. (2002). In winter strong freshwater input

generates a thin (5m), low salinity surface layer which flows southward over much of

the Gulf, above relatively homogenous high salinity waters whereas in summer

surface low-salinity layer was not well defined and was confined to the western Gulf

in the vicinity of the surface sources.

Marine Environment

At present, at most places in the world untreated sewage waste are discharged

directly into the marine environment. The major pollution impact on estuarine

organisms is probably caused by poorly treated sewage which led to severe oxygen

deficits and consequent asphyxiation of many water-breathers (Matthiessen and

Law, 2002). However, since the introduction of improved sewage treatment in the

last 30 years, a number of continuing impacts have come to light which represent

true toxic effects of micro-contaminants. Ramaiah et al. (2002) revealed that direct

viable counts (DVC) of bacteria were quantified from polluted and relatively less/non-

polluted coastal locations in order to assess whether routine monitoring for

understanding environmental stresses could be achieved.

Coastal areas receiving significant amounts of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus,

silicon) mostly from land-based sources contributed to an increase in biological

productivity often exceeding the natural productivity found in coastal and marine

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

environments (Cruzado et al., 2002). Thornton (2002) studied transport of energy

and nutrients by marine snow which was a ubiquitous feature of the ocean. Caffeine

has been used anecdotally an indicator of anthropogenic inputs to aquatic systems.

However, few data documented the distribution and fate of caffeine in coastal

seawater. Caffeine has been detected in Boston Harbor seawater with

concentrations ranging from 140 to 1600 ng l-1, and in Massachusetts Bay seawater

at concentrations from 5.2 to 71 ng l-1 (Siegener and Chen, 2002).

Sediment and biota samples were collected from Msimbazi and Kizinga rivers and

from the coastal marine environment of Dar es Salaam during both dry and wet

seasons to provide understanding of various organochlorine pesticide residues

(Mwevura et al., 2002). Dieldrin, p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDD, o,p'-DDT and -HCH

were detected at significantly greater concentrations above the method detection

limits. For the combined analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,

polychlorobiphenyls, and organochlorine pesticides in marine sediments, a multi-

residue analysis procedure using microwave-assisted extraction and pre-purification

has been developed (Thompson et al., 2002)

Release of trace elements, which is due to a combination of their physico-chemical

properties and toxicological implications, has been described as a serious threat to

the environment. The vertical distribution of Mo, U, and Cd in relation to major redox

species in muddy sediments of the Bay of Biscay was examined (Chaillou et al.,

2002). In the anoxic layer of the sediment, Mo precipitated as a detectable

authigenic phase only when sulfide minerals were present, i.e. when sulfate

reduction becomes important. In anoxic sediments, Cd enrichment was a good

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

indicator of sulfide production from sulfate reduction even if the production was

weak. Uranium precipitates at the depth of reactive iron (III) reduction. No

relationship was observed between U and S. The level and contribution of

hydrocarbons to the marine environment of the Black see were evaluated by

Kruglyakova et al. (2002). It was found that biogenic methane concentrations

reached their maximum in the hydrogen sulphide zone. It is established that there

was a high rate of methane generation in seawater and seabed sediments.

The ecology of tropical carbonate coasts, including coral reefs and rocky limestone

shores, is susceptible to disturbance that may have linked effects on

geomorphology. Field observations on tropical and temperate coasts by both

biologists and geomorphologists have come to stress the importance not of stable,

successional littoral communities but rather of nonequilibrial, multistate systems

(Spencer and Viles, 2002).

Servicing of oil tankers and ships in the ports are the major factors contributing

towards oil pollution. Chronic oil pollution resulted in sizable populations of

hydrocarbon degraders. Analysis of 20 samples of marine mud and water around

Mumbai resulted in the isolation of 17 bacteria and yeasts all of which were able to

degrade more than 10% of the supplied crude oil (Zinjarde and Pant, 2002).

WATER QUALITY

It is widely known that watershed hydrology is dependent on many factors, including

land use, climate, and soil conditions. A significant relationship between land use

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

and in-stream water quality, especially for nitrogen, phosphorus and fecal coliform

was found in the East Fork Little Miami River Basin (Tong and Chen, 2002). Results

of the study on nitrate, chloride, and bromide concentrations in the Ogallala Aquifer

of northwest Texas suggested that agricultural activity locally impact groundwater.

Regionally, low aquifer recharge rates curtailed groundwater contamination from

potentially adverse land uses (Hudak, 2002).

The hydrological characteristics of the uplands exert an important influence on the

hydrochemistry of both headwater streams and downstream river systems. Thus,

many of the spatial and temporal patterns in the chemical quality of surface waters

are mediated by hydrological processes that route precipitation through upland

catchments (Soulsby et al., 2002). The contributions of hydrological models and

digital cartography were considered against a background of changing information

needs and the likelihood that the long term stability which has characterized water

resource variability in the past, may not continue in the future. Water quality

parameters such as concentrations of dissolved organic matter, chlorophyll or total

suspended matter were determined by airborne remote sensing techniques

(Hakvoort et al., 2002).

Systematic management of wetland fed by municipal wastewater and industrial

runoff not only solves the problem of environment pollution but also balances the

ecosystem. The major adverse impacts of sewage on water quality are

deoxygeneration, high biochemical oxygen demand load, rapid eutrophication, and

accumulation of heavy metals in the environment. Sediments, water, fish, and water-

hyacinth from Mudially wetlands near Kolkata city were analyzed for physico-

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

chemical properties and heavy metal content (Chaudhuri et al., 2002). The quality of

effluent, sediments, fish and water-hyacinth regarding to pollution is higher when

effective purification of polluted effluent was performed through natural and chemical

ways.

Investigations on the Upper Vistula River course (from 11 to 337 km) in years 1997-

1998 comprised: chemistry of water and sediments, indicators of water quality (Zurek

et al., 2002). Loads of chlorides were constant, whereas chloride concentration

diminished. Nitrate concentration arose together with loadings and phosphate

concentrations were constant similarly to loadings. The pollution level in the water of

Tigris River after passing through the Baghdad metropolitan area, where many

sewages and industries dump their refuse into the river were measured (Al-Khalidi,

2002). Results showed significant level of pollution in the river after passing through

the specified region.

A study on the pollution sources to the air, water and soils of Zhuzhou City, Hunan

Province, China showed that Zhuzhou air quality was determined by industry and

traffic and that SO2 was the major pollutant. NH3-N was the major pollutant in water

within the Zhuzhou section of the Xiang River with the Xiawan section. For soil

environmental quality with respect to heavy metal pollution, Cd was found as the

major pollutant (Wang, 2002).

PATHOGENS

Protozoa

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Quantitative risk assessment for protozoan parasites that provided information on

both exposure and dose response was investigated by Teunis and Havelaar (2002).

Waterborne exposure has been relatively well studied. As direct measurement of

drinking water exposure is impossible, estimation of the concentration in drinking

water is performed by taking source water data and estimating the effects of storage

and treatment. Given the present poor performance of detection methods and the

gaps in knowledge of the dose response relation, setting standards for the

occurrence of health effects is an approach that can lead to measuring public health

risks of various agents on a unified scale. Cryptosporidium remains at the forefront of

studies on waterborne disease transmission and abatement; risk and control of

cryptosporidium is managed at various levels (Rose et al., 2002). Land use patterns

are managed to minimize the contributing factors in the potential for waterborne

spread of the protozoan. Advances in detection methodologies and cell culture

techniques have allowed insight into the viability of the oocyst populations and

speciation. Water treatment technology has focused on UV and ozone disinfection

as most promising for the inactivation of this protozoan pathogen.

In this study an atomic force microscope (AFM) has been used to measure the force

of interaction between oocysts of C. parvum and a model sand surface (silicate

glass) (Considine et al., 2002). It has been found that the surface of C. parvum

oocysts possesses a hairy layer, most likely a result of surface proteins extending

into solution. The hairy layer imposes a steric repulsion between the oocyst and

sand surface, in addition to any electrostatic repulsion. The hairy layer collapsed to

varying extents in the presence of dissolved calcium and dissolved organic carbon,

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

indicating that the oocysts may be more readily adsorbed onto the model sand

surface under these conditions. Conversely, as the two surfaces are pulled apart, the

occasional attachment of oocyst surface proteins to the model sand surface can

result in adhesion. The AFM results offer new insights into the oocyst surface of C.

parvum, and the mechanism of interaction with model sand surfaces under

conditions relevant to sand-bed filtration. Hamilton et al. (2002) reviewed the use of

particle to monitor and minimize the risk of Cryptosporidium in drinking water supply.

Key characteristics of the research on particle counters include their higher

sensitivity to changes in water quality at low turbidities (below 0.1 NTU), their higher

sensitivity to changes associated with larger particle sizes, and their particle-sizing

ability.

Investigation on the interaction between soil types, temperature, and soil water

potential on the survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in the terrestrial

environment was investigated (Jenkins et al., 2002). Three soil types (a silty clay

loam,silt loam, and loamy sand), three temperatures (4, 20, and 30 degreesC), and

three soil water potentials (-0.033, -0.5 and -1.5 MPa) were used as variable to

investigate the inactivation kinetics of oocysts. Sentinel oocysts were extracted, and

assayed for potential infectivity by the dye permeability method. Oocyst survival in

soil was not affected by the water potentials between -0.033 and -1.5 MPa; it was

affected by soil texture; but temperature appeared to be the factor most affecting

oocyst survival. The effects of freeze-thaw events on the inactivation of

Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in soil were examined by Kato et al. (2002).

Oocysts were inoculated into distilled water in microcentrifuge tubes or into

chambers containing soil. Inactivation rates were greater in soils than in water and

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

greater in dry soil than in moist and wet soils. Soil type showed no effect on

inactivation. Oocysts subjected to freeze-thaw cycles had inactivation rates not

significantly different from those of oocysts subjected to -10 C under static

conditions. The results indicated that 99% of oocysts exposed to soils that are frozen

at -10 C will become inactivated within 50 days whether or not freeze-thaw cycles

occur. Vegetated buffer strips and their ability to remove waterborne

Cryptosporidium parvum from surface and shallow subsurface flow during simulated

rainfall were evaluated (Atwill et al., 2002). Vegetated buffer strips may remove

greater than or equal to 99.9% of C. parvum oocysts from agricultural runoff

generated during events involving mild to moderate precipitation.

An investigation about distribution of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in

natural, drinking, and recreational water in Northwestern Greece was performed by

Karanis et al. (2002). Five rivers (Aoos, Arachthos, Kalamas, Louros, and

Voidomatis) and one lake (Pamvotis Ioannina Lake) in Northwestern Greece were

investigated during a 10-month period. Significantly lower numbers of

Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in Arachthos River (1/5), Voidomatis River

(1/5), drinking water (1/7), and pool water samples (1/9). No Giardia cysts were

detected, neither in river water, nor in drinking, and pool water samples. The results

clearly show that, with the exception of Pamvotis Ioannina Lake, where

contamination of high level was observed, natural water sources of the investigated

area have low pollution, resulting in low contamination with parasites. Howe et al.

(2002) investigated an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis occurred in and around

Clitheroe, Lancashire, in northwest England, during March 2000. Cryptosporidium

oocysts were identified in samples from the water treatment works as well as

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

domestic taps. Environmental investigation suggested that contamination with animal

feces was the likely source of the outbreak. This outbreak was unusual in that

hydrodynamic modeling was used to give a good estimate of the peak oocyst count

at the time of the contamination incident. The oocysts' persistence in the water

distribution system after switching to another water source was also unusual. This

persistence may have been due to oocysts being entrapped within biofilm. The

temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay was assessed by

Fayer et al., (2002). The time when the greatest percentage of oysters at most sites

had detectable oocysts coincided with the time of greatest weekly and monthly

rainfall, greatest streamflow into the Bay, and lowest water temperatures.

Neelakantan et al. (2002) used a neural network approach to relate risky

Cryptosporidium and Giardia concentrations with other biological, chemical and

physical parameters in surface water. A set of drinking water samples was classified

as "risky" and "nonrisky" based on the concentrations of full and empty oocysts, and

cycsts of Cryptosporidium and Giardia, respectively. The study aimed at identifying

an effective training algorithm that would maximize the performance of a neural

network model working with a relatively small dataset. A number of algorithms for

training neural networks, including gradient search with first- and second-order

partial derivatives, and genetic search were used and compared. Results showed

that genetic algorithm based neural network training consistently provided better

results compared to other training methods. Quintero-Betancourt et al. (2002)

reviewed the conventional and more novel techniques that are currently available to

detect Cryptosporidium and Cyclospora in water. Conventional techniques and new

immunological and genetic/molecular methods make it possible to assess the

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

occurrence, prevalence, virulence, viability, levels, and sources of waterborne

protozoa. Concentration, purification, and detection are the three key steps in all

methods that have been approved for routine monitoring of waterbome oocysts.

Bacteria

Kim and Corapcioglu (2002) developed a mathematical model to describe the

contaminant transport in dual-porosity media in the presence of dissolved organic

matter (DOM) and bacteria as mobile colloids. In the model development, a porous

medium is divided into the mobile and immobile regions to consider the presence of

ineffective micropores in physically heterogeneous riverbanks, assuming that the

contaminant transport in the mobile region is controlled by the advection and

dispersion while the contaminant transport in the immobile region occurs due to the

molecular diffusion. The contaminant transfer between the mobile and immobile

regions takes place by diffusive mass transfer. The model results show that in

riverbank filtration, the contaminant can migrate further than expected due to the

presence of DOM and bacteria. In addition, the contaminant mobility increases

further in the presence of the immobile region in aquifers. It is also demonstrated that

the contaminant breakthrough curves are sensitive to changes in contaminant

adsorption and desorption rate coefficients on DOM and bacteria. A literature review

describing soil colloid-facilitated transport of contaminants such as phosphorus,

pesticides and other agrochemicals, plus a range of biological microorganisms was

performed by McGechan and Lewis (2002). Smaller microorganism (viruses and

bacteria) are transported mainly (like chemical contaminants) by adsorption onto

otherwise harmless mobile colloidal clay particles or soil organic matter. Potential

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

impediments to movement of colloids through soil can be subdivided into straining

and filtration, depending on whether a particle has a dimension similar to pores

(leading to physical trapping) or much smaller. Filtration mechanisms, including

interception, diffusion and sedimentation, have been compared to those described in

the extensive engineering literature on deep bed filtration. Sorption processes are

discussed, both those to static components of the soil matrix and onto mobile

colloids. The chemical influences of ionic strength and pH to colloid transport are

reviewed, as well as the double diffusion layer as a mechanism linking particles to

surfaces. Numerous reported studies using column experiments to measure colloid

or contaminant transport through soil have been reviewed and indicated the

importance of macropore flow which allowing rapid unrestricted transport of

contaminant carrying colloids. A new method for the study of pathogen transport in

porous media was presented by Gitis et al. (2002). The method is based on

conjugation of fluorescent dyes to target bacteriophages and application of the

modified bacteriophages for tracer studies. The advantages of the proposed method

relative to direct enumeration of bacteriophages by plaque forming unit method,

turbidity, fluorescent microspheres, and other alternative tracers are discussed.

Notable advantages include simple quantitation by optical methods, unbiased signals

even when virus aggregates are formed, and the ability to decouple inactivation

kinetics from transport phenomena. Additionally, the signal reflects the removal and

transport of the studied microorganism and not a surrogate. The applicability of the

convection-diffusion approach for describing the microbial transport in soils is

examined by Shein et al. (2002). Analysis of the breakthrough curves obtained in

column experiments with bacteria of the Aquaspirillum and Arthrobacter genera in

various soil substrates (peat, soddy-podzolic soil, sand, etc.) reveals specific

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

features of microbial transport, including the clustering of microorganisms and

peculiarities of sorption processes in dynamic conditions.

Vinten et al. (2002) compared the survival of total E. coli and of E. coli O157 in the

laboratory for two soils under controlled temperature and moisture. In four field

experiments at three sites, slurry containing total E. coli numbers of 2.2 x 10(4) to 5.7

x 10(5) colony forming units per mL (c.f.u. mL(-1)) was applied to drained field plots.

Field die-off was faster than expected from laboratory experiments, especially in one

experiment where two weeks dry weather followed application. In all but this

experiment, the first drain flow events after slurry application led to very high E. coli

concentrations in the drains (10(3) to 10(4) c.f.u. mL(-1)). E. coli O157 was present

in the slurry used for two of the experiments (33 c.f.u. per 100 mL in each case).

However the proportion of E. coli O157 was very low (about 1 in 10(5)) and it was

not detected in the drainage water. After the first week E. coli drainage water

numbers decreased rapidly but they were 1-10 c.f.u. mL(-1) for much of the sampling

period after slurry application (1-3 months).

Auckenthaler et al. (2002) have conducted artificial and natural particle transport

experiments at a karst spring with bacteria, bacteriophages, microspheres, and

pathogens. Transport of the investigated microorganisms, turbid matter and chemical

pollutants as well as increase in discharge are strongly related to precipitation and

the heterogeneity of the aquifer. The indicator bacteria E cob revealed a significant

correlation to verotoxin-producing E cob and Cryptosporidium spp. Results

demonstrated that artificial particle tracers can help identify "hot spots" for microbial

recharge and that system parameters in spring water such as turbidity. Schijven et

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

al. (2002) study nonlinear removal of bacteriophages by passage through saturated

dune sand. It is suggested that the high initial removal in the field is due to the

presence of favorable sites for attachment formed by ferric oxyhydroxides that

decrease exponentially with travel distance. Similar removal rates may be found at

both laboratory and field scale. However, due to local variations at field scale

detailed knowledge on soil heterogeneity may be needed to enable a reliable

prediction of removal.

Ling et al. (2002) investigated and quantified the weak and strong adsorption of an

indicator bacterium (Escherichia coli) in soil-water systems composed of Tangi silt

loam (14% clay) or Commerce clay loam (35% clay). For strong adsorption, together

with literature data, a high correlation (R-2 = 0.89) was found between percent

adsorption and clay content. Significant correlation (R-2 = 0.67) was found between

distribution coefficient and clay content. The relationships developed may be used

for modeling purposes.

Papajova et al. (2002) conducted a study to observe the potential transport of

Ascaris suum eggs, selective bacteria, and chemical pollutants from contaminated

animal liquid excrements through the rendzine type soil horizon, for potential cause

of the environmental pollution. When animal slurry applied on rendzine soil type was

contaminated with propagative stages of endoparasites the microorganisms' vertical

penetration into deeper soil horizons was very low. Most of the eggs remained in the

superficial layer and vegetation, where they may pose a hazard not only for

polygastric animals, but also for other non-specific hosts. With application of

untreated animal slurry on rendzine soil type the bacterial species as Streptococcus

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

sp., Staphylococcus sp. Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas sp. and relatively high

concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus penetrated into deeper soil layers. This

may cause the pollutions of soil, groundwater and eutrophication of water-sourses,

which may in case of increased rainfall present a threat to quality of drinking or

service water.

The relative concentration of pathogens in water samples collected from storm

drains and adjacent surfaces was evaluated using established PCR-based protocols,

(Loge et al., 2002). The detection limit corresponding to a negative-PCR result was

evaluated in reference to water quality standards developed using a risk-based

approach that integrates human dose-response data with acceptable levels of risk

promulgated by the U.S. EPA for recreational contact. Ambient water quality

standards based on the occurrence of specific pathogens enumerated with PCR-

based assays could serve as a method of evaluating the biological quality of water

but only after significant improvements in filtration and purification protocols. The

risk-based methodology developed in this study can be used to evaluate future

improvements in filtration and purification protocols. The objective of the study by

Mehmannavaz et al. (2002) was to test whether subsurface irrigation with a water

table management (WTM) system, successfully used previously for nutrient delivery,

could also be used to deliver bacteria to soil depths, for transport and distribution of

bacteria for agricultural and in-situ environmental decontamination applications.

Experimental results indicate that subirrigation can be used effectively to bioaugment

a sandy loam soil matrix. Chen and Strevett (2002) demonstrated through a

microbial transport study of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and

Pseudomonas aeruginosa through model media of silica gel and alluvial loam from

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

the Central Oklahoma Aquifer demonstrated that the retardation factor and

deposition coefficient are related to the free energy of surface interactions between

the bacteria and the media at different distances, which are determined by the radius

and the surface thermodynamics of the microorganisms and the surface

thermodynamics of the media. A combined model that incorporates the deep-bed

filtration model into a simple convection-dispersion model was used in evaluating the

microbial transport. The deposition coefficient, which describes irreversible

adsorption, was a function of the free energy of the surface interactions at the

closest approach (1.57 Angstrom) where Lewis acid-base interactions dominated.

However, the retardation factor, which describes reversible adsorption of bacterial

transport, was a function of the free energy of the surface interactions at the last

inflection point where van der Waals interactions dominated (similar to10 mum in this

study).

The association between protists, bacteria, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in

an oxygen-depleted, 6 km-long wastewater contaminant plume within a sandy

aquifer (Cape Cod, MA) was investigated by comparing abundance patterns along

longitudinal and vertical transects and at a control site (Kinner et al., 2002). Strong

linear correlations were observed between unattached bacterial abundance and

DOC, while a logarithmic decrease was observed between the number of protists

supported per mg of DOC and the estimated age of the DOC within the plume. The

higher than expected ratios of protests to unattached bacteria (10 to 100:1) observed

in much of the plume suggest that protists may be grazing upon both surface-

associated and unattached bacterial communities to meet their nutritional

requirements. The presence of protests resulted in an increase in the apparent

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

substrate saturation level for the unattached bacterial community, suggesting an

important role for protists in the fate of more-labile aquifer organic contaminants.

Virus

The effects of different surfactants (cationic, anionic, nonionic, and biological) and

natural organic matter (NOK) on bacteriophages transport and survivability was

determined by Chattopadhyay et al. (2002). Results indicated that surfactants and

NOM adversely affect phage survival in binary systems, with surfactants being the

most harmful. Studies with ternary systems also showed that the presence of

surfactants reduced sorption of phages on sorbents either by occupying available

sorption sites on the sorbent material or by displacing the sorbed phages from the

sorbent surface. Experiments demonstrated that the sorption of hydrophobic viruses

was favored by hydrophobic sorbents, while the sorption of hydrophilic viruses was

favored by hydrophilic sorbents.

A model interpreting virus removal from groundwater by soil passage as a function of

collision efficiencies alpha(beta) and alpha(lambda), inactivation rate coefficient

mu(i) and rate parameter gamma was developed by Schijven and Hassanizadeh

(2002). A hypothetical worst case was simulated to calculate the travel distance and

time required for 9 log(10) protection against virus contamination of groundwater

wells in anoxic sandy aquifers

A two-dimensional model for virus transport in physically and geochemically

heterogeneous subsurface porous media was developed by Bhattacharjee et al.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

(2002). The model involves solution of the advection-dispersion equation,

considering virus inactivation in the solution, and virus removal at the solid matrix

surface due to attachment (deposition), release, and inactivation. Model predictions

showed that the presence of subsurface layered geochemical and physical

heterogeneity results in preferential flow paths and thus significantly affect virus

mobility. Random distributions of physical and geochemical heterogeneity have also

notable influence on the virus transport behavior. While the solution inactivation rate

was found to significantly influence the virus transport behavior, surface inactivation

under realistic field conditions has probably a negligible effects on the overall virus

transport. A kinetic modeling of virus transport at the field scale was assessed by

Schijven and Simunek (2002). One- and two-dimensional modeling approaches,

differences between one- and two-site kinetic sorption models, and the role of

heterogeneities in the soil properties were compared. The two-dimensional two-site

model provided the best results.

Nasser et al., (2002) performed a study to determine the antiviral microbial activity of

soil saturated with secondary effluent. Low concentrations (0.05 mg/ml) of protease

pronase resulted in the inactivation of more than 90% of seeded Cox-A9 virus,

whereas Poliovirus type 1, Hepatitis A virus (HAV) and MS2 bacteriophages were

found to be insensitive to the enzyme activity. The virucidal effect of microbial activity

was a virus type dependent. Microbial activity in the soil material can be enhanced

by the application of secondary effluent at higher temperature. The results also

showed that MS2 bacteriophage can be used to predict viral contamination of soil

and groundwater.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

BIOMARKERS

Environment Diagnostic Tools

Lagadic (2002) examined two approaches for monitoring environment quality. The

first approach consists in the detection and/or quantification of stressors in both

physical and biological compartments of the ecosystems (physicochemical

approach), while the second approach resides in the evaluation of exposure of living

organisms and subsequent effects at the individual, population and/or community

levels (biological approach). Indices have been defined for both approaches.

Physico-chemical indices are used to assess the quality of aquatic environments and

water resources. Biological indicators have been developed to evaluate the impact of

environmental stress on aquatic organisms at various levels of biological

organisation. Among these biological indicators, biomarkers are used as tools to

assess molecular, biochemical, cellular, physiological or behavioral changes that

may reveal exposure of organisms to environmental chemicals. Biomarkers are able

to indicate that chemicals specifically affect metabolic pathways or physiological

functions in exposed individuals. Therefore, biomarkers can be used as both

diagnostic and predictive tools.

Triebskorn et al. (2002) investigated biomarkers in stream populations of juvenile

brown trout (Salmo trutta f. fario) and gammarids (Gammarus pulex) to determine if

crayfish mortality could be confounded by pollutants. In addition to chemical

analyses of water, sediments and tissues samples, the following biomarkers were

used: alterations of fish liver ultrastructure, fish gill and kidney histopathology, stress

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

protein (hsp70) expression in fish liver, gills and in gammarids, and changes in

various blood parameters of brown trout. Biomarkers together with chemical and

limnochemical analyses concomitantly indicated modern pollution of the stream at all

sampling sites. Biological data indicated a transient, episodic event at one sampling

site resulting in altered stress protein levels in gills and livers of trout and in whole

gammarids as well as in elevated numbers of macrophages in liver tissue. Biomarker

responses provided spatial and temporal evidence that a contaminant release was

associated with the crayfish mortalities observed in this stream system.

A simple method developed by Beliaeff and Burgeot (2002) summarized biomarker

responses and simplified their interpretation in biomonitoring programs, in order to

evaluate the effects of exposure to chemical contaminants and detect responses to

environmental stress. The study used star plots to display results for the panel of

biomarkers used for cacti station and survey. Integrated biomarker response (IBR)

was then computed as the star plot area. Star plots using IBR values instead of

biomarker data make it possible to visualize between-site and/or between-survey

differences. The IBR as an indicator of environmental stress was applied to lsites in

the Baltic Sea and the Seine Esturay, English Channel, appears to be a useful tool

or scientists and managers in assessing ecological risk. Hahn (2002) reviewed the

types and relative sensitivities of mechanistically-based, in vitro bioassays for dioxin-

like compounds, including assays of receptor-binding, DNA-binding and

transcriptional activation of native (CYP1A) or reporter (luciferase) genes. Cell

culture bioassays are rapid and inexpensive, and thus have great potential for

routine monitoring of marine resources. Bioassays can be used to assess the

concentration of halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (HAHs) or dioxin equivalents

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

such as chlorinated dioxins, dibenzofurans, and biphenyls in extracts of

environmental matrices.

Owen et al. (2002) performed sequential measurements of hemolymph

cholinesterase activities as a non-invasive biomarker of seasonal pesticides

exposure such as organophosphate/carbamate for the tropical scallop, Euvola

(Pecten) ziezae. Monthly sampling of hemolymph from scallops at two sites in

Bermuda over a 15 month period showed seasonal acetylcholinesterase and

butyrylcholinesterase inhibition. Direct and indirect evidence suggests that this

inhibition did not relate to biochemical or physiological changes associated with

gonad maturation and spawning, but rather reflected diffuse contamination of the

marine environment by cholinesterase inhibitors or increased bioavailability of such

inhibitors at these times.

Recent research initiatives have propelled a shift toward exploring molecular

epidemiology and molecular biological markers (biomarkers) as a means of providing

more immediate, quantitative risk assessment of potentially deleterious

environmental exposures. Vayssier-Taussat et al. (2002) compared, in normal

human monocytes isolated from the blood of healthy donors, variations in Hsp70

expression and mitochondrial membrane potential (Deltapsim) in response to

exposure to either tobacco smoke or gamma-irradiation, two models for

environmentally mediated oxidant exposure. On the basis of its mechanistic

specificity for oxidants and little baseline variation in cells from distinct individuals, it

was proposed that Deltapsim represents a selective in vitro and in vivo biomarker for

oxidant exposure. Deltapsim may be used to gauge risks associated with oxidant-

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

mediated air pollution and radiation. The biomarker approach, adopted from medical

toxicology, is subject to several theoretical and practical difficulties when used to

address environmental problems. The problems are related to the definition that

emphasizes measurement but does not specify a requirement to establish cause-

effect linkages. McCarty (2002) reviewed an improved definition for a bioindicator.

The sentinel species approach is judged to be a biomarker rather than a bioindicator,

and therefore of limited use for environmental risk assessment. An empirical weight

of evidence approach to improve the utility of sentinel species is proposed.

Assessment of Exposures to Contaminants

A review establishing general principles of biological monitoring for chemical

mixtures was performed by Viau (2002). It was stated that when interactions occur,

they appear to be toxicokinetic in nature, often resulting from competition between

two or more substances for the same biotransformation enzymes. A threshold is also

frequently observed for such interactions, so that it might not influence the

relationship between the absorbed dose and the value of the relevant biomarker.

The extent of the interaction between chemicals also depends on the extent of

biotransformation of each compound. As a result, the measurement of the parent

compound or its metabolite will be differentially influenced by the presence of an

interfering chemical. Biological limit values (BLV) are often established from the

correlation between the bioindicator concentration in a given biological medium and

the airborne concentration of the parent compound. When this relationship is derived

from exposure to pure chemicals, it might not always yield an appropriate BLV for

monitoring exposure to a mixture that includes this particular chemical.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Flammarion et al. (2002) investigated biomarkers as early warning systems of the

exposure of aquatic organisms to pollutants. Measurement of the cholinesterase

(ChE) activities in fish muscle was examined as a biomarker of the exposure to

organophosphosphates and carbamates pesticides. Statistical relationship

between ChE activities and fish length was observed, with the larger fish having the

lower ChE activities. It was then stressed the importance of taking into account the

fish length whenever differences in ChE levels between field sites must be

interpreted. Pottinger et al. (2002) investigated the use of the three-spined

stickleback as an environmental sentinel. Results demonstrated that indicators of a

generalized stress response (changes in cortisol, glucose, RNA/DNA ratio and total

protein) when measured in whole-body preparations of individual three-spined

sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus displaced significant alterations in response to

acute (hours) and chronic (days) disturbances and food withdrawal. Changes in

alkali-labile phosphorous, a specific biomarker of exposure to oestrogenic

contaminants was also detected in whole-body preparations of oestrogen-exposed

three-spined sticklebacks confirming that the measurement of biomarkers normally

assessed in a specific tissue can be equally possible in whole fish.

Zebra mussels are common freshwater mollusks in many European lakes and rivers.

Their abundance, wide distribution, and filtering activity make them good candidates

to evaluate the contamination of freshwaters with environmental contaminants.

Berny et al. (2002) determined the kinetics of lindane in zebra mussels. Their results

indicated that mussels accumulated lindane with a bioconcentration factor around

10. The in situ results, together with the laboratory exposures, showed that

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

freshwater mussels could be used to monitor point sources of pollutants such as

lindane over short periods of time.

In the study from Casini et al., (2002), two populations of Otaria flavescens, living in

a polluted and in a reference site, were examined in order to validate the use of

porphyrins as a non-destructive biomarker of exposure to environmental

contaminants. Analysis of porphyrins was carried out in the feces, blood and fur of

free ranging sea lions and in the liver and kidney of stranded specimens. Results

show demonstrated that all biological materials used were useful for porphyrin

determinations, however no clear seasonal variations in porphyrin accumulation and

excretion were found, but differences in fecal porphyrin levels existed between the

two colonies. Klumpp et al. (2002) presented a baseline information on embryo

malformation rate and biomarkers in fish as indicators of sub-lethal stress caused by

pollution in coastal waters of Xiamen, PR China. Fish and eggs were sampled from

several areas in Xiamen coastal waters (Xiamen Harbour, Maluan and Tongan Bays

and East Channel), where varying levels of pollutant input have been documented.

Embryonic malformation rates, which indicate general water quality, varied with

location and species of fish, and exceeded background levels for unpolluted waters

(assumed similar to5%) by up to eightfold at some sites. An indication that toxic

contaminants may be having a localised effect in the region, particularly in the

harbour was reinforced by the biomarker assays. Antioxidant biomarkers (glutathione

peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase, and reduced glutathione) suggest that

exposure to xenobiotics appears to be lowest in Dongshan and Maluan and highest

in the harbour and Tongan. Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase in fish muscle

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

indicated possible effects by organophosphate and carbamate pesticides in Xiamen

waters and these effects may be greatest in the area of the harbour.

Froese et al. (2002) addressed the need for a biomarker of ingestion exposure to

drinking water disinfection by-products by performing a human exposure trial.

Evaluation of urinary excretion of trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) as an exposure

biomarker was performed using 10 volunteers who normally consume their domestic

tap water. This study demonstrated the merits and feasibility of using TCAA in FMU

as an exposure biomarker, and reveals remaining concerns about possible alternate

sources of TCAA exposure for individuals with low drinking water ingestion

exposure.

Wu and Kow (2002) applied a generic index (GI) utilizing epilithic diatom

assemblages as a bioindicator of water pollution in subtropical rivers in Taiwan to a

study of a tropical river. The six genera used for the calculation of GI in the

subtropical rivers were also the main components of diatom assemblages in the

River Tsanwun. The calculated values displayed a close correlation with water

quality, evaluated on the basis of physical and chemical variables. A strong

correlation was found between this GI and other diatom-based indices of water

quality.

de la Torre et al. (2002) examined the effect of prolonged exposure at two sites

along the Reconquista River (Argentina), a highly polluted peri-urban water body, on

brain etylcholinesterase (AChE, EC 3.1.1.7, acetylcholine acetylhydrolase) of two

teleosts. Data obtained disclosed spatial differences and demonstrated the high

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

sensitivity of AChE activity as an exposure biomarker. Marked species-related

differences were detected, showing that enzyme determination of C.

decemmaculatus is more effective in highly polluted sites. Considering the river

water physicochemical profile, observed changes in AChE activities can be partly

related to long-lasting raised concentrations of dissolved heavy metals. Geffard et al.

(2002) investigated the use of oyster gills for the analytical determination of

metallothionein (MT) concentration as a biomarker of metal exposure. Temporal

variations in MT and metal concentrations were examined in Japanese oysters from

a clean site (Bay of Bourgneuf, France) and a metal-rich site (Gironde estuary,

France) as well as in individuals translocated from the clean to the contaminated

area. The ratio between the annual average of MT concentrations in specimens from

the clean and the metal-rich sites was 1.3. Metals concentrations in oyster gills

differed consistently between the clean and the metal-rich sites (annual average

ratios of 1.5, 2.7 and 9. 8, respectively, for zinc, copper and cadmium) and a fast

increase in metal concentrations (over a few months) was observed in transplants,

mainly for cadmium. MT and soluble metal concentrations were found to be

positively and significantly correlated over the period of the study. This relationship is

a positive argument for a possible use of gill MT concentration as a biomarker of

metal pollution.

White et al. (2002) developed an integrated rapid, semiportable, prototype point

microbial detection/identification system for clinical specimens that is also capable of

differentiating microbial bioterrorism attacks from threats or hoaxes by defining the

pathogen. The system utilizes "flash" extraction/analytical system capable of

detection/identification of microbes from environmental and clinical matrices. The

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

system couples demonstrated technologies to provide quantitative analysis of lipid

biomarkers of microbes including spores in a system with near-single cell (amol/mul)

sensitivity. Tandem mass spectrometry increases specificity by providing the

molecular structure of neutral lipids, phospholipids, and derivatized spore-specific

bacterial biomarker, 2,6-dipicolinic acid (DPA) as well as the lipopolysaccharide-

amide-linked hydroxy-fatty acids (LPS-ALHFA) of Gram-negative bacteria. The

extraction takes about an hour for each sample but multiple samples can be

processed simultaneously. Khatib et al. (2002) describes a method based on PCR to

identify cattle fecal pollution in water using a portion of the heat labile toxin IIA (LTIIa)

gene from enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). Minimum detection limits using

centrifugation and filtration methods to concentrate E. coli seeded into stream,

ocean, and secondary effluent waters were found to be at femtogram and attogram

levels, respectively. Stability of the biomarker in stream, ocean, and secondary

effluent waters was 2-4 weeks for all water types. Finally, 33 farm lagoon and waste

samples were collected and 31 tested to validate the method; 93% were positive for

the LTIIa trait when >1,000 E. coli were screened and 100% positive when >10(5) E.

coli were screened. The cow biomarker can be used in watershed studies to identify

cattle waste with great accuracy if the appropriate numbers of E. coli are screened.

RADIONUCLIDES

Migration and Transport

More than 50 years ago, floodplain soils of the Techa river were polluted by

radioactive wastes of the "Mayak" plant. These soils are now found to be a source of

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

secondary pollution of the river (Mikhailovskaya et al. 2002). A high content of mobile

compounds of Sr-90 in floodplain soils and the ability of this radionuclide to migrate

together with surface runoff and soil flows are responsible for a higher contribution of

Sr-90 to the secondary pollution of the river compared with that of Cs-137.

Makhon’ko et al. (2002) examined the dynamics of radioactive contamination of air,

soil, and water, caused by atmospheric nuclear weapons tests and the Chernobyl

accident, over the entire time of regular observations of the radioactive

contamination of the environment on the territory of the USSR and, after 1991, in

Russia. The reasons for the change in the radioactive contamination of these objects

in nature are analyzed. Hagedorn and Bundt (2002) sampled the soil from the

preferential flow paths and from the unstained matrix. In preferential flow paths, the

activities of Cs-137, Pb-210 and Pu-239,Pu-240, as well as concentrations of soil

organic carbon (SOC), were enriched by a factor of up to 3.5 relative to those of the

matrix. The Cs-137 originates mainly from the Chernobyl accident in 1986, the Pb-

210 from a continuous 'natural' atmospheric deposition and the Pu-239,Pu-240 from

nuclear weapon tests in the 1950s and 1960s. Since all of these radionuclides are

only mobile in the soil immediately after deposition, the increased activities of

radionuclides in the recent flow paths sampled during our experiments indicate that

these flow paths were stable for decades. This means that despite the differing

boundary conditions at the different sampling times, the pathways of infiltrating water

were persistent with time. Profiles of Pb-210, (CS)-C-137 and Pu-239,Pu-240

measured sediment cores collected from various sedimentary regimes in the East

China Sea were analyzed to elucidate the sources, routes and budgets of sediments

as well as these radionuclides (Su and Huh, 2002). Distributions of sedimentation

rates and nuclide inventories reveal alongshore transport of sediments, Cs-137 and

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Pu-239,Pu-240 from the mouth of the Yangtze River toward the south, largely

confined to the inner-shelf area (water depth <70 m). Mass balance calculations

suggest that the East China Sea is a sink for the particle-reactive Pb-210 and Pu-

239,Pu-240, and that the East China Sea serves as a source for Cs-137. As for the

sediment budget, mass balance cannot be established due to a shortfall in sediment

supply of more than 30% based on a comparison between input terms documented

thus far and the sedimentation flux derived from this study.

Physical processes that effect the movement of radionuclides in the temperate

environments post-deposition were investigated by Anspaugh et al. (2002). The

physical processes considered include the interception of radionuclides by

vegetation, resuspension, and vertical migration in soil. United States and Russian

results on the interception of radionuclides are reviewed and defined in terms of

models that are currently undergoing evaluation and revision. New results on

resuspension are evaluated, and a preliminary new model for the time-dependent

resuspension factor is proposed. Chernobyl-related results on the movement of

radionuclides into the soil column are presented, as is a revised model for this

process based upon recent results from Ukraine. Solecki and Chibowski (2002)

studied the horizontal and vertical migration of Sr-90 in soil systems. Mean

radioactivity of strontium in these soils was 26.15 +/- 22.2 Bq/kg. Atmospheric

precipitation of strontium on this area was 0.35 kBq/m(2)/cm. Radioactivity in soil

profiles ranged from 17 to 130 Bq/m(2)/cm and the isotope was detected even at 30

cm depth, Some tendency to vertical migration of strontium towards the river was

noticed. Obtained results were compared with concentrations of calcium and

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

strontium in the soil. Any clear influence of these elements on the migration of

strontium Sr-90 was noticed.

Monte (2002) proposed a generic model for predicting the long-term migration of

radionuclides and heavy metals from catchments. The model subdivides the

catchment into several homogeneous, infinitesimal sub-catchments and integrates

the radionuclide contributions from sub-catchments to calculate the total flux of

contaminant. The radionuclide behaviour was related to the statistical distribution of

the pollutant partition coefficient on the "ensemble" of sub-catchments. The

methodology was validated for Sr-90 and Cs-137 by using water data from

contaminated European rivers, and values of migration parameters for Pu, Tc, I and

Cd isotopes were also obtained. Beaugelin-Seiller et al. (2002) developed

CASTEAUR, a simplified tool to assess the transfer of radionuclides between and in

the main biotic and abiotic components of the freshwater ecosystem. Applied to

phenomenological modeling, various hypotheses simplify the transfer equations,

which, when programmed under Excel, can be readily dispatched and used.

CASTEAUR can be used as an assessment tool for impact studies of accidental

release as well as "routine" release. This code is currently being tested on the Rhone

River, downstream from a nuclear reprocessing plant. The first results are reported

to illustrate the possibilities offered by CASTEAUR.

Transfer and Bioaccumulation

The bioaccessibility of low level radionuclides from two Savannah river site soils was

assessed. (Ellickson et al., 2002). A bioaccessibility method was modified to allow

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

measurements of bioaccessible radionuclides. The technique can be used to model

human exposure and radionuclide dose from soil ingestion pathways. The

bioaccessibility of Cs-137 in the soils was significantly correlated to soil

physicochemical characteristics, with a negative correlation with clay content, while

90Sr was significantly correlated to calcium bioaccessibility. These relationships can

be used to prioritize remediation according to soil type.

Environmental pollutant isotope measurements and natural radioactivity assessment

were performed for North Tushki area, south western desert, in Egypt (Sroor et al.,

2002). The natural radionuclide (U-238, Th-232, K-40) contents of rock samples at

various locations in the North Tushki area were investigated using gamma-

spectrometric analysis. Estimates of the measured radionuclide content have been

made for the absorbed dose rate of gamma radiation. The equivalent radium (R-eq)

and the external hazard index (H-ex) which resulted from the natural radionuclides in

soil are also calculated and tabulated. The distribution of major oxides, U and Th

were studied. It was found that the enrichment and depletion of the major oxides are

mainly due to the effect of hydrothermal alteration, which caused mobility of some

major oxides, which increases some elements and decreases others.

Gulin et al. (2002) investigated the input and deposition of the man-made

radionuclides Cs-137, Pu-238, Pu239+240 and Am-241 introduced to the north-

western Black Sea, over the last few decades, as the result of atmospheric nuclear

weapons testing and the Chernobyl nuclear accident. The deposition records and

chronology of these radionuclides in the sediments was studied and compared with

monitoring data of the post-Chernobyl input of Cs-137 to the NW Black Sea

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

sediments from the Danube River. In sediments deposited in the vicinity of the

Danube delta and the Dniepr estuary, the activity of Chernobyl Cs-137 had reached

its maximum 5 and 10 years after the accident, respectively. The percentage of

particulate Cs-137 and its distribution coefficient vs salinity have allowed the

estimation of sedimentary scavenging and desorption of caesium in the Danube

mixing zone. Comparison of the post-Chernobyl Cs-137 input from the Danube to the

Cs-137 inventory in the adjacent Black Sea sediments showed that more than 70%

of this radionuclide was deposited in the Danube-Black Sea mixing zone. Sanada et

al. (2002) investigated areas contaminated with radionuclides from the Chernobyl

nuclear accident. The inventories of radionuclides concentrations in the bottom

sediments of the Pripyat River near the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant were

compared with radionuclides concentration released during the accident. Results

suggest that the possibility of release of Cs-137 and Pu-239,Pu-240 from the bottom

sediment was low compared with Sr-90. The potential dissolution and subsequent

transport of Sr-90 from the river bottom sediment should be taken into account with

respect to the long-term radiological influence on the aquatic environment. Detailed

distribution profiles and inventories of plutonium, americium and cesium to

investigate recent sedimentation phenomena such as sediment mixing, slumping

processes and bioturbation in coastal margins were provided by Gasco et al. (2002).

Costal margins are important areas to be considered when studying the distributions

and depositions of pollutants, both conventional and radioactive. Unsupported Pb-

210 data are used as reliable indicators of enhanced/reduced deposition events.

Inventories have also enabled the estimation of the radiological contribution of the

Spanish Mediterranean margin to the total radioactivity deposited onto the

Mediterranean sea floor. A mathematical model was constructed by Fesenko et al.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

(2002) to simulate the processes of Cs-137 migration in peat soils and its uptake by

vegetation. Model parameters were assessed and the pattern of Cs-137 distribution

over soil profile was predicted in case of peat soils, which are typical of the Russian

regions contaminated after the Chernobyl accident. The ecological half-life of Cs-137

in the plant-root soil zone was calculated, and a long-term prognosis of the

radionuclide uptake by plants was made. The vertical distribution of Cs-137, Sr-90,

(239),Pu-340, Pu- 238 and Am-241 was determined in soil samples collected from

the Chernobyl exclusion zone in 1994 (Lujaniene et al., 2002). The results show very

close distribution profiles for all radionuclides, with about 90% of the total activity of

each nuclide lying between the surface and the fourth centimeter. Sequential

extraction methods were used to determine the association of radionuclides in soil.

The data on vertical distribution of radionuclide species were used to calculate their

vertical migration parameters.

The importance of food as radionuclide source for the crustacean Daphnia magna

was investigated by Adam et al. (2002) using a planktonic food chain composed of

young pre-adult daphnids and two algal species (Scenedesmus obliquus and

Cyclotella meneghiana). The results suggested that the Trophic Transfer Factor

(TTF) of radionuclides in daphnids was generally greater for the transfer via

Scenedesmus than via Cyclotella and that it could be linked to the intracellular

fraction of accumulated radionuclides and consequently to their biochemical

behaviour. It was underlined through this research the importance of considering the

food contamination in the models of radionuclide transfer through trophic chains, in

order to widen their applications in different seasons or ecosystems. A

compartmental model was developed for estimating the ingestion dose, due to Cs-

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

137, arising from the consumption of marine fish in Hong Kong (Poon, 2002). In the

model, three sea/ocean compartments are considered. Assuming the discharge of

this radionuclide is maintained at a constant rate, the model shows that the

concentration of Cs-137 in the water and in the marine fish in the three sea

compartments would become steady after 5 years. The predicted results were

generally within one order of magnitude with measurements. Ausseil et al. (2002)

carried out field and laboratory experiments to assess the influence of Cd and Zn on

the contamination levels of Ag-110m, Co-57, and Cs-134 in rainbow trout. The

potential effect of chronic exposure to stable metals on several biomarkers has been

explored. Plasma analysis indicated the disruption of certain variables linked to the

energetic metabolism and to the maintenance of the ionic balance. In contrast, no

significant disruption of the measured enzyme activities was observed. With regard

to the bioaccumulation of radionuclides, concentrations in fish exposed to metals are

much lower than those in fish from the control group. Various hypotheses are

proposed to link fish metabolic profiles due to metal exposure to the

radiocontamination of organisms.

Albrecht et al. (2002) developed and formulate a snore realistic soil-plant transfer

model for naturally structured soils including physical and chemical characteristics

and root distribution. Brilliant Blue and Sulforhodamine B were used to dye flow lines

and Zn-65 and Mn-54 to trace soil distribution and plant uptake of surface-applied

particle-reactive contaminants. The higher uptake of Mn was modeled on the basis

of radionuclide and root distribution as a function of depth and using a combination

of preferential flow and rooting, while the considerably higher uptake of Zn requires

transfer factors accounting for variable biochemical uptake as a function of location.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Rao et al. (2002) measured concentrations of the long-lived radioisotope I-129 dated

tree rings in order to determine whether the distribution of this isotope reflects the

history of nuclear deposition. I-129 concentrations and I-129/I-127 ratios were

analyzed in tree rings and bark samples in NY. The selected trees reflect different

modes of fluid and nutrient transport in trees, with three species of ring-porous trees

(elm, oak, and locust), one semidiffuse (cherry), and one diffuse-porous tree (maple).

The results show that I-129 levels in ring-porous trees, in which xylem or hydrologic

tissue is localized in the outermost growth ring, are generally well correlated with the

expected I-129 deposition pattern for the region. In contrast, tree rings of the more

common semidiffuse to diffuse-porous wood, where xylem is disseminated

throughout the trunk, show a less well developed I-129 signal, probably due to the

transport of iodine ions across annual rings. The I-129/I-127 ratios for bark are very

similar to values obtained for surface soil and water at the two localities, while inner

rings have ratios similar to those in deeper layers of the soil, reflecting different

pathways for I-129 uptake and the differences in ambient I-129 levels between the

atmosphere and deep soil. Results indicated that growth rings from ring-porous

wood are useful in time-series analyses of regional I-129 deposition, yielding reliable

information on relative changes in I-129 concentrations but requiring caution in the

reconstruction of absolute ambient concentrations during any given time.

Frissel at al. (2002) described a generic system for soil-to-plant transfer factor of

radiocesium, Cs-137, depending on soil properties, nutrient status, exchangeable K-

content, pH and moisture content. Crops are divided into crop groups, cereals

serving as reference group. Existing data present in the IUR (International Union of

Radioecologists) databank and from the work of a FAO (Food and Agriculture

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Organisation), IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), IUR project on tropical

systems provided the basis for the derivation of the conversion factors and reference

values. Ehlken and Kirchner (2002) reviewed environmental processes affecting the

plant root uptake of radioactive trace elements and the variability of transfer factor.

The effects of competition with major ions present in the soil-plant system, the

effects of rhizosphere processes and soil micro-organisms on bioavailability, the

factors influencing transport to and uptake by roots and the processes affecting long-

term uptake rates are presented. The results of simulation experiments on the

sorption kinetics of Sr-90, Ru-106, Cs-117, and Ce-144 in different soil types are

presented (Kotova and Sanzharova, 2002). Mobilization of these radionuclides as it

depends on their chemical nature and the soil properties is analyzed.

Environmental factors (nutrients and pH) influencing the retention of Sr, Cs, and Ba

as analogue of long-lived radionuclides by the microorganism were investigated

(Kakiuchi et al., 2002). The effect of pH and concentration of organic nutrients are

proved to be significant factors for retention of cations (Sr, Cs and Ba) by the

microorganisms inoculated from surface soil. Microorganisms can also affect the

speciation of Sr, Cs, and Ba in the environment. Concentration of organic nutrients

and pH are very important environmental factors in the consideration of the migration

of the radionuclides through microbial processes in the terrestrial environment.

Sabbarese et al. (2002) performed experiments at the nuclear power plant of

Garigliano (Caserta. Italy) to measure the transfer factors of Cs-137 and Co-60

radionuclides from irrigation water to soil-plant system. The impacts of irrigation

technique (ground or aerial) was also investigated. Tomato plants were irrigated

weekly with water contaminated with Cs-137 and Co-60 (about 375 Bq/m(2) week),

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

using both irrigation techniques. It was found that the activity allocated to the plant

organs is significantly dependent upon the irrigation technique, amounting to 2.1%

and 1.6% of the activity given in the cultivation for aerial treatment and 0.4% and

0.3% for the ground treatment, for Cs-137 and Co-60 respectively. The activity

absorbed by plants is allocated mainly in leaves ( > 55%), while less then 10% is

stored in the fruits, for both irrigation techniques. Transfer factors (soil-plant and

irrigation water-plant) of tomato plants and of weeds have been determined for Cs-

137 and Co-60, as well as for natural K-40 in the soil.

SEWAGE SLUDGE

Alternative Re-uses of Sewage Sludges

Increasing political effort to improve water quality across the UK and Europe has led

water and sewerage companies to invest heavily in high-tech wastewater treatment

plants capable of producing high quality effluents with promotion of energy efficiency

and development of renewable energy technologies. The current regulations relating

to water quality and energy use that will affect water industry operations over coming

years were outlined (Zakkour et al., 2002). Even though, in Europe the agricultural

reuse of sewage sludge is controlled by Directive, the combined forces of statutory

regulation and “market” regulation have made the task of exploiting the scientifically

recognized agricultural reuse benefits of sewage sludge arduous to achieve (Tyson,

2002).

Preparation of activated carbon from sewage sludge is a promising way to produce a

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

useful adsorbent for pollutants removal as well as to dispose of sewage sludge. The

physical and chemical properties of the activated carbon made from sewage sludge

were examined to give a basic understanding of its structure. The activated carbon

was prepared by activating anaerobically digested sewage sludge with 5 M ZnCl2

and, thereafter, pyrolyzing it at 500 °C for 2 h under nitrogen atmosphere. The

properties investigated in the present study included its surface area and pore size

distribution, its elemental composition and ash content, its surface chemistry

structure and its surface physical morphology. Furthermore, its adsorption capacities

for aqueous phenol and carbontetrachloride were examined. The results indicated

that the activated carbon made from sewage sludge had remarkable micropore and

mesopore surface areas and notable adsorption capacities for phenol and

carbontetrachloride. In comparison with commercial activated carbons, it displayed

distinctive physical and chemical properties (Chen et al., 2002).

Sewage sludge-derived fertilizer, Terrene, was used as a precursor of adsorbents

tested for removal of hydrogen sulfide from moist air. The adsorbents were obtained

by pyrolysis of sulfuric acid-treated granular fertilizer at 600, 800, and 950°C in a

nitrogen atmosphere. The highest H2S removal capacity was obtained for the sample

carbonized at 950°C. This was a result of a combined effect of the specific chemistry

of the inorganic phase and the development of microporosity within the carbon

deposit. On the surface of the materials studied hydrogen sulfide was converted to

elemental sulfur, sulfides, and sulfates as a result of the reaction with salts/oxides

and the presence of an oxidizing atmosphere. The removal of H2S occurred until all

the small micropores were filled with the reaction/oxidation products (Bagreev and

Bandosz, 2002).

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

The role of ATP-sulphurylases in the enzymology of accelerated primary sludge

solubilisation utilizing sulphate-reducing systems was investigated. ATP-

sulphurylase levels were monitored in methanogenic (ATPSMR) and sulphidogenic

(ATPSSR) bioreactor systems. ATPSMR and ATPSSR activities were mainly present in

the cell free fractions of the bioreactor sludge. ATPSMR activity was significantly

lower (10–20-fold) than the activity observed for ATPSSR. Studies of pH optimization

showed a pH optima of 9.0 for ATPSSR. ATPSMR and ATPSSR exhibited temperature

optima of 50 and 55 °C respectively, with ATPSSR showing a higher degree of

temperature stability at its temperature optimum. Sulphate and sulphide had no

effect on ATPS activity. The effect of volatile acids, lime (CaO) and divalent metal

ions on ATPS activity was also investigated. Mg2+ ions were required for activity.

ATPSSR activity rapidly increased in the closed system sulphidogenic reactor over

the first 3–5 days, coincident with sulphate concentration decreases. It was

concluded that ATPS activity can serve as a possible marker of sulphate reduction

and anaerobic digestion of sludge using a sulphidogenic bioreactor system

(Pletschke et al., 2002).

For enhancing diesel oil degradation in contaminated soil, composting was used to

find the appropriate mix ratio of organic amendments. Sewage sludge or compost

was added as an amendment for supplementing organic matter for composting of

contaminated soil. The ratios of contaminated soil to organic amendments were

1:0.1, 1:0.3, 1:0.5, and 1:1 as wet weight basis. Target contaminant of this research

was diesel oil. The degradation of diesel oil was significantly enhanced by the

addition of these organic amendments relative to straight soil. Degradation rates of

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) and n-alkanes were the greatest at ratio of 1:0.5

of contaminated soil to organic amendments on wet weight basis. High correlations

(r=0.80–0.86) were found among TPH degradation rate, amount of CO2 evolved, and

dehydrogenase activity (Namkoong et al., 2002).

An investigation on anaerobic hydrogen production was conducted in fixed-bed

bioreactors containing hydrogen-producing bacteria originated from domestic

sewage sludge. Three porous materials, loofah sponge (LS), expanded clay (EC)

and activated carbon (AC), were used as the support matrix to allow retention of the

hydrogen-producing bacteria within the fixed-bed bioreactors. The carriers were

assessed for their effectiveness in biofilm formation and hydrogen production in

batch and continuous modes. It was found that LS was inefficient for biomass

immobilization, while EC and AC exhibited better biomass yields. The fixed-bed

reactors packed with EC or AC (denote as EC or AC reactors) were thus used for

continuous hydrogen fermentation at a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 0.5–5 h.

The biogas produced with EC and AC reactors typically contained 25–35% of H2 and

the rest was mainly CO2, while production of methane was negligible (less than

0.1%). During the efficient hydrogen production stage, the major soluble metabolite

was butyric acid, followed by propionic acid, acetic acid, and ethanol (Chang et al.,

2002).

The hydrogen production potential from sewage sludge by applying downdraft

gasification technique was investigated. An experimental study was conducted using

a pilot scale (5 kWe) throated downdraft gasifier. The flow rates of the wet product

gas, the mass flow rate and volumetric percentage of hydrogen were determined and

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

illustrated. The effects of temperatures of oxidation zone on the production of

hydrogen were discussed, and the conversion ratios of dried sewage sludge to

hydrogen and ash were also designated. It was concluded that substantial amount of

hydrogen gas could be produced utilizing a renewable biomass source such as dried

and undigested sewage sludge pellets by applying air blown downdraft gasification

technique. The product gas obtained mainly consists of H2, N2, CO, CO2 and CH4

with a maximum average gross calorific value of 4 MJ/m3. Around 10–11%(V/V) of

this product gas was hydrogen, which could be utilized for fuel cells. Moreover,

sewage sludge could be assumed as an alternative renewable energy source to the

fossil fuels, and the environmental pollution originating from the disposal of sewage

sludge could be partially reduced (Midilli et al., 2002). The most important objectives

to gasify sewage sludge were to produce a clean gas of acceptable composition for

synthesis or combustion, and to convert this solid resource into combustible-clean

gas at high efficiency. The experiments of the gasification were conducted using a 5

kWe-throated downdraft gasifier. It was concluded that sewage sludge can be

gasified to produce low-quality combustible gas, and would be an acceptable

alternative source to fossil fuels for the production of the clean energy. The thermal

efficiency was calculated to be between 39% and 40% at the optimum operation

levels (Dogru et al., 2002).

Dehydrated and dried powdered sewage sludge (SW) were examined for use as an

alternative to yeast extract (YE) to promote the degradation of lipid materials by a

thermophilic oxic process (TOP). The applicability of SW to lipid degradation was

confirmed in tests on three kinds of highly concentrated lipid wastes. With a nutrient

supplement consisting of SW, a constant degradation efficiency of around 75% in

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

120-h, treatment was attained for all lipid wastes despite their different features. The

results of an elemental analysis suggested that the effectiveness of SW as a nutrient

to stimulate thermophilic microbial activity in TOP was attributable to both a sufficient

quantity and variety of amino acids and mineral components (Nakano and

Matsumura, 2002).

An effective alternative for the final destination of sludge from urban wastewater

treatment plants as a component to mortar or concrete was searched. A binding and

stabilizing matrix of sludge-cement and sludge-cement-coal fly-ash was investigated

and the effects of various percentages of waste and binder, on the behavior of

sludge in the system were presented. Assessment of the environmental quality of the

final product for the building industry was investigated through a number of leaching

tests, such as the Netherlands Leaching Test (Valls and Vazquez, 2002).

Treatment, Utilization and Management Techniques of Sewage Sludges

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was carried out in order to compare the environmental

impacts of five alternative treatment scenarios of sewage sludge in France. The

scenarios were composed of one main process (incineration, agricultural land

application, or landfill), one stabilization process (lime stabilization, composting, or

anaerobic digestion) and transports of sludge. Scientific data, real site data and

simulation results were used for accomplishing the assessment. The combination of

anaerobic digestion and agricultural land application was found to be the most

environmentally friendly because of less emissions and consumption of energy. The

most important substances contributing to human toxicity and ecotoxicity were heavy

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

metals released from the atmospheric effluent of incineration and from the sludge

applied to agricultural fields; finally appropriate tools were required to control the

non-point-source pollutants like the methane of the dispersed landfill gas and the

effluent gases of transport vehicles (Suh and Rousseaux, 2002).

An evaluation of the influence of the storage time in plots on the chemical properties

of sewage sludge deposited on plots was investigated for small wastewater

treatment plants. Tests were carried out on samples obtained from discrete layers of

stratified sludge that had lain in a hydrophyte facility disused for 7 years after 23

years of continuous sludge discharge. The age of the sludge was established by the

lead-210 method. Moisture, organic matter, total nitrogen and total phosphorus

contents were measured in samples of dated sewage sludge. The composition of the

stored biosolids stabilized with respect to phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter

within 11, 15 and 17 years, respectively (Pempkowiak and Obarska-Pempkowiak,

2002).

The solubilization and enhanced hydrolysis of complex polymeric organic carbon

structures associated with the anaerobic sulphidogenic environment was

investigated during the first stage in the degradation and recycling of primary sewage

sludge (PSS) and particulate organic. Protease and phosphatase enzyme activities

were predominantly associated with the organic particulate matter of the sewage

sludge. Sonication of the sludge gave an increase in enzyme activity as the enzymes

were released into the supernatant fluid. pH optimization studies showed a broad

range of proteolytic activities with prominent enzyme activity at pH 10, while the

phosphatases had greatest activity at pH 4.5. Temperature optimizations studies

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

demonstrated neutral proteases surviving temperatures up to 70 °C, those at pH 5

and 10 with temperature optima at 50 and 60 °C and phosphatases at 60 °C,

respectively. All enzymes indicated extensive stability for several hours at their

respective optimum temperatures and pH (Whiteley et al., 2002).

The pyrolysis of sewage sludge, produced by a Spanish urban wastewater treatment

plant, was carried out in a laboratory furnace. Pyrolysis conditions, like heating rate

and final pyrolysis temperature, were varied so that their influence on the

characteristics of the resulting gases, liquids and solid residues could be studied. It

was found that increasing the pyrolysis temperature decreases the solid fraction

yield and increases the gas fraction yield while that of the liquid fraction remains

almost constant. Furthermore, the effect of the heating rate was found to be

important only at low final pyrolysis temperatures. Independently of the pyrolysis

conditions, all the solid products obtained were of a basic nature and highly

macroporous, the meso- and micro-pore volumes being relatively low. Both oils and

gases produced in the pyrolysis showed relatively high overall heating values,

comparable to some conventional fuels, revealing the potential application of these

products as fuel (Inguanzo et al., 2002). A new method for pyrolyzing sewage sludge

using a microwave furnace was described (Menendez et al., 2002). It was found that

if just the raw wet sludge was treated in the microwave, only drying of the sample

takes place. However, if the sludge was mixed with a small amount of a suitable

microwave absorber, temperatures of up to 900°C could be achieved, and pyrolysis

would take place rather than drying. Microwave treatments were also compared with

those carried out in a conventional electric furnace, as well as the characteristics of

their respective carbonaceous solid residues. Chao et al. (2002) investigated the

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

pyrolysis of hydrocarbon-rich sludge in an oxygen-free environment as a source

providing useful liquefaction products and residues. The pyrolysis kinetics of sludge

from a petrochemical factory wastewater treatment plant was studied to reveal the

effects of temperature on the reaction rate and the magnitude of H and S of the

reaction barrier. Oven-dried sludge samples were pyrolyzed in an isothermal reactor

under six different temperatures. Data analysis indicated that a first order reaction

model could be used to describe the pyrolysis kinetics, across all experimental

temperature ranges. When transition state theory was applied, the results indicated

that the major reaction barrier came from the entropy term of the activation free

energy. Therefore, increasing the pyrolysis temperature to overcome the reaction

barrier yielded no apparent improvement, but strategies that reduced the entropy

should significantly improve the reaction.

Leachate recirculation is an emerging technology associated with the management

of landfill. The impact of leachate recirculation on the co-disposal of three major

wastes (municipal solid waste, sewage sludge and sediment dredgings) was

investigated using a laboratory column study. Chemical parameters (pH, COD,

ammoniacal-N, total-P) and gas production (total gas volume, production rates and

concentrations of CH4 and CO2) were monitored for 11 weeks. Leachate recirculation

reduced waste-stabilization time and was effective in enhancing gas production and

improving leachate quality, especially in terms of COD. The results also indicated

that leachate recirculation could maximize the efficiency and waste volume reduction

rate of landfill sites (Chan et al., 2002).

Supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) can decontaminate hazardous organic wastes,

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

including mixtures whose constituents vary widely in their susceptibility to oxidation.

The SCWO kinetics of complex organic wastes were analyzed using a mathematical

model that eliminated the substantial input requirements and computationally

demanding mathematics of multistep, component-specific rate expressions. These

wastes were JP-5 aviation fuel, Velsicol H537 hydraulic fluid, aqueous methanol

solutions, NaOH and NH4OH hydrolysates of solid rocket propellants, an orange

military dye marker, municipal sewage sludge, and alcohol distillery waste water.

The model was separately parameterized for each waste by best fitting its

predictions of conversion as affected by residence time and/or temperature to

experimental data from various investigators. A satisfying correlation resulted for

each case. The times required to achieve 99.99% destruction of different wastes

depended strongly on the nature of the waste and differed by about three orders of

magnitude from the most labile waste to the most refractory waste (Vogel et al.,

2002).

Effects of irradiation of sewage sludge and the presence of anthracene and

phenanthrene on C and N dynamics in soil microcosms were investigated (Barajas-

Aceves et al., 2002). Pesticides (like Tara-909) have been used extensively to

control pests and insects in the rice paddy cultivation which is also an important

abiogenic source of methane, a green house gas. In order to study the inhibiting

effect of Tara-909 on methanogens, in vitro studies of the effect of the pesticide

Tara-909, on the biomethanation of: (i) sewage; (ii) prereduced enriched

methanogenic medium inoculated with methanogens; (iii) sewage and prereduced

enriched methanogenic medium inoculated with isolated methanogens; and (iv)

autoclaved sewage sludge inoculated with methanogens were completed. Tara-909

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

has been found to inhibit biomethanation in all cases, i.e., methane generation from

rice paddy fields is likely to be reduced considerably (Chakraborty et al., 2002).

Works in literature proposed the use of the rheological properties of wastewater

sludges as an index for conditioner assessment and control. It was demonstrated

that one could not justify the consistency of the commonly used rheological

characteristics of the sewage sludge samples taken from the same site but at

different dates. A physically relevant index was proposed instead for describing the

total network strength, which was hypothesized to correlate the dewatering efficiency

of flocculated sludge. Based on this index, the network of sludge was demonstrated

to be largely destroyed after shearing, while the relaxation in an unbound

environment or mild pouring over action could partially reinstall the structure.

Moreover, a uniform shear rate field could produce network of greater strength when

compared with that conditioned in a stirred tank (Yen et al., 2002).

An investigation was carried out for a variety of different sewage sludges in order to

establish correlations between sludge composition, structure and dewatering

properties. Results indicated that the fraction of extracellular polymeric substances

(EPS) in sludges was the most important parameter with respect to sludge structure.

As dewatering also includes sludge expression, it was noted that osmosis related to

EPS charges is likely to be increasingly important (increasing the negative effect of

EPS content on cake dry matter) (Mikkelsen and Keiding, 2002).

Agricultural Usage of Sewage Sludges as a Fertilizer

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

The soils amended with sewage sludge compost displayed larger and more active

microbial biomass than those treated with chemical fertilizer, which has implications

for current interests in shifting from chemical fertilizer application to organic wastes

for promoting efficient nutrient cycling in agro-ecosystems (Zaman et al., 2002).

Mineralisation of organic N is an important consideration when determining the

annual amount of sewage sludge to be applied to agricultural soils. The clayey and

sandy soil were treated with aerobic and anaerobic sludge at two different rates (30

and 50 g sludge kg-1 soil). The mineralisation of sludge organic N was determined

during 20 weeks incubation period by analysis of inorganic N produced by a non-

leached procedure. Sludge organic N mineralisation was influenced by soil type,

organic N mineralisation being greater in the sandy soil (from 30% to 41%) than in

the clayey soil (from 13% to 24%). Mineralisation rates decreased rapidly the first

two weeks, followed by a slower decrease with time. Although total mineralisation

increased with sludge addition rate, net mineralisation decreased with sludge

addition rate, probably due to denitrificaton losses. The aerobically treated sludge

gave higher mineralisation rates than the anaerobically treated one. The values of N0

and k for treated soils varied depending on the type of sludge and soil (Hernandez et

al., 2002).

Recycling of organic wastes within agriculture may help maintain soil fertility via

effects on physical, chemical and biological properties. Efficient use of the waste

products and its effects were compared with natural variations due to climate and

soil type. In general, effects of waste amendment were positive, but moderate

compared to the dynamics observed in unamended soil, and mainly occurred in the

first several weeks after amendment. The temporal dynamics of inorganic N, FDA

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

hydrolysis activity, biomass C and PLFA composition appeared to be faster under

the fluctuating climatic conditions in the field (Debosz et al., 2002)

There is a high probability that urban compost, sewage sludge and ash will come in

contact with natural terrestrial ecosystems. Crouau et al. (2002) investigated the

extent to which the Folsomia candida population development test (now a

standardised ecotoxicological test, ISO 11267, for testing the impact of pure

chemicals on soil fauna) can be applied to the detection of the toxicity of these

wastes, the goal being to evaluate ecotoxicity of wastes before they are spread on

land. It was showed that some potentially useful information on waste toxicity can be

obtained with this test, but the results must be interpreting with caution, indeed,

problems can arise from differences in pH, humidity and organic matter content of

the waste relative to the characteristics of the dilution soil.

The effects of annual applications of farm manures (pig slurry (PS), broiler litter (BL)

and cattle farmyard manure (FYM)), liquid digested sewage sludge (LDS) and

inorganic phosphorus (P) fertilizer on P concentrations and losses in tile drain flow

from a calcareous clay soil were studied over four winter drainage seasons. The site

was under arable cropping in South Eastern UK and had been intensively

underdrained in autumn 1994. The tile drainage system comprised of plastic pipes

covered with gravel backfill and supplemented by 2 m spaced mole channels.

Application of PS in November 1994, 4–6 weeks before the onset of winter drainage,

resulted in high concentrations of dissolved P (up to 10 mg l-1) and total P (TP) in

drain flow (up to 75 mg l-1). TP losses following application of PS over this first

drainage season (1155 g ha-1) were increased four-fold compared to a control

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

receiving no P (277 g P ha-1). The majority of the increased loss occurred in the first

drainage event due to the rapid transport of the PS through the macropores created

in the soil following the installation of tile and mole drains 1 month before the slurry

was applied. Application of BL, FYM, LDS and inorganic P fertilizer at maximum

recommended rates did not significantly increase P losses in any drainage season,

nor did the PS in subsequent years. This study supported current guidelines on good

agricultural practice, which recommended that liquid farm manures should not be

applied to recently drained clay soils to avoid direct contamination and P enrichment

of the drainage water (Hodgkinson et al., 2002).

Chemical parameters and enzyme activity in sewage sludge-treated soil were

investigated in Jaboticabal county, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Sewage sludge

increased soil organic matter, extractable P, K, Ca, Mg, and amylase and cellulose

activity. Some of the plant nutrients contained in sewage sludge, mainly P, did not

migrate down the soil column, an indication that sewage sludge should be

incorporated into the soil to improve nutrient bioavailability (De Melo et al., 2002).

A laboratory incubation study was conducted with the objective of determining the

effects of time, temperature, and soil properties on availability and chemical fractions

of phosphorus (P) in anaerobically digested sewage sludge-amended silty clay loam

and sandy loam soils. It was concluded, based on time trends that sludge as a P

source on a P-limited soil should be applied well before the period of maximum plant

demand (Akhtar et al., 2002).

Metals in Sewage Sludges

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

In order to determine appropriate application rates and to ensure low pollutant levels

in sewage sludge, knowing the chemical composition of sewage sludge is of great

importance in a land application programme. New Jersey Publicly Owned Treatment

Works facilities were chosen for analysis of the variability of sewage sludge

characteristics between facilities and within facilities. Therefore, the selection of

sewage sludge sources would be more suitable for land application and in the

development of Best Management Practices for use of sewage sludge on land

(Krogmann and Chiang 2002). The chemical characteristics of 89 municipal waste

ashes, including food scrap ash (FSA), animal waste ash (AWA), horticulture waste

ash (HWA), sewage sludge ash (SSA) and incinerator bottom ash (IBA), from

various locations in Japan were examined with the aim of evaluating their suitability

for use in agriculture (Zhang et al., 2002a).

Although sewage effluent and sludge provides nutrients for plant growth, its continual

use over extended periods can result in the accumulation of heavy metals in soils

and in grass to levels that are detrimental to the food chain. Metal concentrations in

the lower soil layers were very small, suggesting that the metals were unlikely to

contaminate groundwater. There was no direct correlation between metal levels in

soils and grasses. It was postulated that it is the bio-available metal fraction in the

soil that is correlated to plant uptake (Madyiwa et al., 2002).

The contents of 18 minor and trace metals in five typical municipal waste ashes in

Japan were examined. In the waste ashes, Li, Ga, Rb, Y, Zr had relatively higher

concentrations, approximately 5–300 mg kg-1, and the remaining metal

concentrations were generally approximately 0.05–20 mg kg-1. A comparison of the

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

metal concentrations in the waste ashes and in Japanese agricultural soils indicated

that the ratios for Ga, Mo, Ag, Sb, W, Bi between sewage sludge ash (SSA) and the

soils were approximately 10–100 and for the remaining metals approximately 0.2–2

(Zhang et al., 2002b).

Sewage-sludge may improve soil fertility, but there is a concern about the effects of

sludge metals on soil microorganisms and microbial processes. Use of sludges with

higher metal concentrations may lead to short-term changes in soil microbial

communities and their activities, with increased loss of C to the atmosphere and N

availability (Khan and Scullion 2002). Mycorrhizal activity and soil organic matter

levels have the potential to modify the risks for plants from metals in sludges (Oudeh

et al., 2002). The long-term effects of Ni, Zn+Ni, Cu, Zn+Cu and Zn on the nematode

communities in soil treated with sewage sludge were studied in an agroecosystem.

The most common responses of the nematode communities to soil heavy metal

pollution were found to be in agreement with the trends expected in stressed

ecosystems and communities, predicted by the hypothesis that stress forces

ecosystems into an early stage of development (Georgieva et al., 2002).

The effects of sewage sludge compost on white wall rocket (Diplotaxis erucoides L.)

were compared with mineral fertilization and control (without any fertilizer) in a

greenhouse experiment. Although sewage sludge compost improved plant growth,

delay in flowering shows that it is necessary to take precautions when spreading

sewage sludge in natural areas (Korboulewsky et al., 2002).

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Cadmium has a toxic effect on soil microbial activity which plays an important role in

nutrient cycling and, therefore, in maintaining soil fertility. In addition, the mobility of

this heavy metal in soil is affected by the addition of urban wastes such as sewage

sludge. Dehydrogenase activity, ATP content, microbial soil respiration and microbial

biomass carbon were used as bioindicators of the toxic effect of Cd. The inhibition of

microbial activity and biomass by different Cd concentrations ranging from 0 to

8000 mg Cd kg-1 soil was described by three mathematical models in order to

calculate three ecological doses of Cd: ED50, ED10, and ED5 (Moreno et al., 2002).

The effect of Cd pollution (50 mg kg-1), with and without sewage sludge (Sw) and

PO43- fertilizer (P) addition, on soil biochemical activity and available Cd was

assessed in a 112-day soil incubation experiment. With the exception urease and N-

acetylglucosaminidase activities, the activities of all the other enzymes were

significantly (P<0.01) and negatively correlated with available Cd. The total number

of culturable bacteria was significantly higher with the addition of sewage sludge

alone (Sw) than the control during the incubation period (P<0.05). The number of

fluorescent pseudomonas decreased with time and was significantly higher by the

addition of sewage sludge alone than the control. The total fungi populations

decreased with time and the addition of sewage sludge and phosphate fertilizers with

and without Cd. The results supported the view that Cd contamination had a large

detrimental effect on nutrient cycling and microbial activity (Karaca et al., 2002).

Copper is one of the most abundant toxic heavy metals in municipal wastewaters

and, in consequence, in sewage sludge and compost. The ability of a strain of the

yeast Pichia guilliermondii, which was isolated from sewage sludge, to eliminate

copper has been evaluated, using both viable and nonviable biomass. It has been

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

found that raising concentrations of copper affected both morphology and

physiological parameters of the viable yeast, and it is thought that a process of

bioaccumulation may be involved in its copper uptake (de Siloniz et al., 2002).

Collaborative interdisciplinary research on the inhalation health risks caused by

particles emitted from the co-combustion of municipal sewage sludge (MSS) and

coal was examined. A solid particle resuspension system was implemented to

resuspend ash particles. Specifically, an MSS/coal mixture, when burned, emits

particles that may cause significantly more lung damage than coal alone, and that

consequently, the use of MSS as a `green', CO2-neutral replacement fuel should be

carefully considered (Fernandez et al., 2002).

Contamination of soils with heavy metals and metalloids is a widespread problem all

over the world. Low cost, non-invasive, in situ technologies are required for

remediation processes. The efficiency of a bauxite residue (red mud) to fix heavy

metals in two soils, one contaminated by industrial activities (French soil), and one

by sewage sludge applications (UK soil) was investigated. In both soils, the

concentrations of metals in the soil pore water and metal fluxes were greatly

decreased by the amendments. An application of 2% red mud performed as well as

beringite applied at 5% (Lombia, et al., 2002). The removal of heavy metals from

sewage sludge compost using natural zeolite clinoptilolite, in respect to the particle

size was examined. The final results indicated that heavy metals could be sufficiently

removed by using 25% w/w of zeolite with particle size of 3.3–4.0 mm. Pore clogging

and structural damage in smaller particle sizes is probably the reason for lower

uptake of metals by the latter (Zorpas et al., 2002). The chemical fractionation and

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

bioleaching of Mn, Al, Zn, Cu and Ti in municipal sewage sludge were investigated

using Thiobacillus ferrooxidans as leaching microorganism. As a result of the

bacterial activity, ORP increase and pH reduction were observed (Lombardi and

Garcia, Jr., 2002). A pot experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of

application of naturally derived dissolved organic compounds (DOC) on the uptake of

Cd, Ni and Zn by Lolium perenne L. from mixtures of soil and sewage sludge and on

their extractability with CaCl2. Applications of natural dissolved organic carbon

significantly increased metal (Cd, Ni, Zn) extractability from soils and their uptake by

ryegrass (Antoniadis and Alloway 2002). Precious and base metal recovery from

leaching metal sulphide concentrates or low-grade ores is often based on the activity

of bacteria, mainly Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, which converts insoluble metal

sulphides into soluble sulphates. Possibility of using organic wastes as nutrients

during the growth of A. ferrooxidans was searched. Flask bioleaching tests using

10% (v/v) pulp density of a pyritic mine waste concentrate have shown that the liquid

fraction of municipal sewage sludge, paper mill sludge and pig manure can support

the growth of the leaching bacteria and allow metal solubilisation almost like a

synthetic mineral medium (Picher et al., 2002).

Complexation properties of an anthropogenic fulvic acid (FA) extracted from a

composted sewage sludge (csFA) for Cu(II), Pb(II) and Cd(II) were studied at pH=6

and at a concentration of 25 mg L-1. Nevertheless, this work shows that csFA have

macroscopic complexation properties (magnitude of the conditional stability constant

and binding sites concentration) somewhat similar to the natural sFA samples (

Esteves da Silva and Oliveira, 2002).

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

A study of the extraction fraction (EF) of metal ions Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb sampled

by microdialysis from a quiescent aqueous solution is presented. Microdialysis was

also used to sample for metal ions from wastewater and from whole tomatoes grown

using sewage sludge manure in order to demonstrate the potential to apply it to

these complicated matrices (Torto et al., 2002).

MINE TAILING

Jurjovec et al. (2002) studied acid neutralization reactions occurring in the saturated

zone of tailings impoundments. Columns were used to simulate conditions prevailing

in many tailings impoundments, and 0.1-mol/L sulfuric acid was passed continuously

through columns containing fresh, unoxidized tailings. pH, Eh and metal

concentrations were observed continuously and the results were compared to field

observations. A comparative study to determine lead concentration in ecosystems

developed on metalliferous mine tailings was conducted (Milton et al, 2002). Lead

concentrations on mine soils, vegetation, groud-dwelling invertabrates and

A.sylvaticus were analysed. A wide range of lead was observed in mine sites but the

extractable portion was not proportinal to the total values. Effects on vegetation,

food-chain transfer to the invertabrates and toxicological risks on small mammals

were also established. McGregor and Blowes (2002) investigated physical chemical

and mineralogical properties of the cemented layers within sulphide bearing mine

tailings. Their location within the stratigraphy, bulk densities, sulphur, arsenic, carbon

and trace element contents were compared relative to the surrounding uncemented

tailings. A study on three abandoned gold mines was performed in order determine

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

distribution of arsenic species in mine tailings by applying an ion exchange method.

Concentrations of arsenic species were also established (Kim et al., 2002).

Catalan et al. (2002) assessed the reactivity of sulfide oxidation products during lime

treatment of tailings samples. Contributions of several alkalinity consumption

mechanisms to the lime requirements were compared using lime treatment tests,

multiple water extractions, sequential extractions, analytical scanning electron

microscopy, and X-ray diffractometry. Saquet et al. (2002) analyzed otoliths from fish

sampled near to acid mine tailings to establish trace element variation. St John et al.

(2002) evaluated soil ecosystem development in revegatated mine tailings by using

mite (Acari) communities and soil quality characteristics. Abundance, richness of

species, diversity and community structures of mites were used as indicators and

compared with control sites to evaluate rehabilitation of tailings and soil formation.

Yankful and Catalan (2002) investigated wind-induced resuspension of flooded

mining tailings using semiemprical predictive methods, measured tailings properties,

and field measurements. The results of the predictions were then compared with

field measurements. Ganguli et al. (2002) developed an expert system called

Submarine Tailings Disposal Expert System (STARES) to assist mining project

Dr. Christophe Darnault is the Water Resources Group Leader at Environmental

Engineering & Technology, Inc., USA. Şemsa Canbulat is a Researcher at the

University of Pretoria at the Department of Mining Technology, South Africa, and a

mining engineering Ph.D. candidate. Ismet Canbulat is the Research Area Manager

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Mining Technology

Division in South Africa. Sema Camcı Çetin is a Research Assistant and Ph.D

student at the Department of Soil Science at Gaziosmanpaşa University, Turkey.

Funda Çimen is a Research Assistant and Ph.D. student at the Department of Soil

Science at Ankara University, Turkey. Dr. Ayten Karaca is an Associate Professor at

the Department of Soil Science at Ankara University, Turkey. Dr. Yasemin Kavdir is

an Assistant Professor at the Department of Soil Sciences at Canakkale 18 Mart

University, Turkey. Dr. Hasan Öztürk is a Research Assistant at the Department of

Soil Science at Ankara University, Turkey. Dr. Burcu Parlak is an Agricultural

Engineer from Ankara University (Department of Soil Science), Turkey. Dr. Sonay

Sözüdoğru Ok is a Professor at the Department of Soil Science at Ankara University,

Turkey. Cafer Türkmen is a Research Assistant at the Department of Soil Science at

Ankara University, Turkey. Dr. Philippe Baveye is a Professor of Geoenvironmental

Science and Engineering at Cornell University. Correspondence should be sent to

Dr. Christophe Darnault at Environmental Engineering & Technology, Inc., 712 Gum

Rock Court, Newport News, VA 23606. [e-mail: cdarnault@eetinc.com]

REFERENCES

Abu-Zreig, M., and Rudra, R.P. (2002) Modelling of Atrazine Transport in the

Presence of Surfactants. J. Environ. Sci. Heal. B, 37,1, 15.

Adam, C., Garnier-Laplace, J., and Baudin, J.P. (2002) Bioaccumulation of Ag-

110M, Co-60, Cs-137 and Mn-54 by the Freshwater Crustacean Daphnia Magna

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

from Dietary Sources (Scenedesmus Obliquus and Cyclotella Meneghiana). Water

Air Soil Poll., 136, 1-4, 125.

Addy, K., Kellogg, D.Q., Gold, A.J., Groffman, P.M., Ferendo, G., and Sawyer, C.

(2002) In Situ Push–Pull Method to Determine Ground Water Denitrification in

Riparian Zones. J. Environ. Qual., 31, 1017.

Akhtar, M., McCallister, D.L., and Eskridge, K.M. (2002) Availability and

Fractionation of Phosphorus in Sewage Sludge-Amended Soils. Commun. Soil Sci.

Plan., 33, 13-14, 2057.

Albrecht, A., Schultze, U., Liedgens, M., Fluhler, H., and Frossard, E. (2002)

Incorporating Soil Structure and Root Distribution into Plant Uptake Models for

Radionuclides: Toward a More Physically Based Transfer Model. J. Environ.

Radioactiv., 59, 3, 329.

Al-Khalidi, A.S.R.S (2002) Measuring Water Sources Pollution Using Intervention

Analysis in Time Series and Log-Normal Model (A Case Study on Tigris River).

Environmetrics, 13, 693.

Anderson, B.S., de Vlaming, V., Larsen, K., Deanovic, L.S., Birosik, S., Smith, D.J.,

Hunt, J.W., Philips, B.M., and Tjeerdema, R.S. (2002) Causes of Ambient Toxicity in

the Calleguas Creek Watershed of Southern California. Environ. Monit. Assess., 78,

2, 131.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Angier, J.T., McCarty, G.W., Rice, C.P. and Bialek, K. (2002) Influence of a Riparian

Wetland on Nitrate and Herbicides Exported from an Agricultural Field. J. Agr. Food

Chem., 50, 15, 4424.

Anspaugh, L.R., Simon, S.L., Gordeev, K.I., Likhtarev, I.A., Maxwell, R.M., and

Shinkarev, S.M. (2002) Movement of Radionuclides in Terrestrial Ecosystems by

Physical Processes. Health Phys. 82, 5, 669.

Antoniadis, V., and Alloway, B.J. (2002) The Role of Dissolved Organic Carbon in

the Mobility of Cd, Ni and Zn in Sewage Sludge-Amended Soils. Environ. Pollut.,

117, 3, 515.

Attaway, H.H., and Schmidt, M.G., (2002) Tandem Biodegradation of BTEX

Components by two Pseudomonas Sp. Curr. Microbiol., 45, 1, 30.

Attaway, H., Gooding, C.H., and Schmidt, M.G. (2002) Comparison of Microporous

and Nonporous Membrane Bioreactor Systems for the Treatment of BTEX in Vapor

Streams. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biot., 28, 5, 245.

Atwill, E.R., Hou, L.L., Karle, B.A., Harter, T., Tate, K.W., and Dahlgren, R.A. (2002)

Transport of Cryptosporidium Parvum Oocysts Through Vegetated Buffer Strips and

Estimated Filtration Efficiency. Appl. Environ. Microb., 68, 11, 5517.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Auckenthaler, A., Raso G., and Huggenberger, P. (2002) Particle Transport in a

Karst Aquifer: Natural and Artificial Tracer Experiments with Bacteria,

Bacteriophages and Microspheres. Water Sci. Technol., 46, 3, 131.

Ausseil, O., Adam, C., Garnier-Laplace, J., Baudin, J.P., Casellas, C., and Porcher,

J.M. (2002) Influence of Metal (Cd and Zn) Waterborne Exposure on Radionuclide

(Cs-134, Ag-110m, and Co-57) Bioaccumulation by Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus

Mykiss): A Field and Laboratory Study. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 21, 3, 619.

Azevedo, A.S., Pereira, L.S., and Kanwar, R.S. (2002) Assessment and Simulation

of Atrazine in Irrigated Soils. Irrig. Drain. 51, 3, 257.

Bagreev, A., and Bandosz, T.J. (2002) H2S Adsorption/Oxidation on Materials

Obtained using Sulfuric Acid Activation of Sewage Sludge-Derived Fertilizer. J.

Colloid Interf. Sci., 252, 1, 188.

Bao, J., Gao, B., Wu, X., Yoshimoto, M., and Nakao, K. (2002) Simulation of

Industrial Catalytic-Distillation Process for Production of Methyl Tert-Butyl Ether by

Developing User’s Model on Aspen Plus Platform. Chem. Eng. J., 90, 253.

Barajas-Aceves, M., Vera-Aguliar, E., and Bernal, M.P. (2002) Carbon and Nitrogen

Mineralization in Soil Amended with Phenanthrene, Anthracene, and Irradiated

Sewage Sludge. Bioresource Technol., 85, 3, 217.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Barlas, N.E. (2002) Determination of Organochlorine Pesticide Residues in Water

and Sediment Samples in Inner Anatolia in Turkey. B. Environ. Contam. Tox., 69, 2,

236.

Beaugelin-Seiller, K., Boyer, P, Garnier-Laplace, J., and Adam, C. (2002)

CASTEAUR: A Simple Tool to Assess the Transfer of Radionuclides in Waterways.

Health Phys., 83, 4, 539.

Beliaeff, B., and Burgeot, T. (2002) Integrated Biomarker Response: A Useful Tool

for Ecological Risk Assessment. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 21, 6, 1316.

Berny, P., Lachaux, O., Buronfosse, T., Mazallon, M., and Gillet, C. (2002) Zebra

Mussels (Dreissena Polymorpha) as Indicators of Freshwater Contamination with

Lindane. Environ. Res., 90, 2, 142.

Bhattacharjee, S., Ryan, J.N., and Elimelech, M. (2002) Virus Transport in Physically

and Geochemically Heterogeneous Subsurface Porous Media. J. Contam. Hydrol.,

57, 3-4,161.

Bosch, D.D., and Truman, C.C. (2002) Agrichemical Transport to Groundwater

Through Coastal Plain Soils. T. ASAE, 45, 5, 1385.

Boyer, E.W., Goodale, C.L., Jaworski, N.A., and Howarth, R.W. (2002)

Anthropogenic Nitrogen Sources and Relationships to Riverine Nitrogen Export in

the Northeastern U.S.A. Biogeochemistry, 57, 1, 137.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Carabias-Martinez, R., Rodriguez-Gonzalo, E., Herrero-Hernandez, E., Sanchez-

San Roman, F.J., and Prado Flores, M.G. (2002) Determination of Herbicides and

Metabolites by Solid-phase Extraction and Liquid Chromatography: Evaluation of

Pollution Due to Herbicides in Surface and Groundwaters. J. Chromatogr. A, 950, 1-

2, 157.

Casini, S., Fossi, M.C., Cavallaro, K., Marsili, L., and Lorenzani, J. (2002) The Use of

Porphyrins as a Non-Destructive Biomarker of Exposure to Contaminants in Two

Sea Lion Populations. Mar. Environ. Res., 54, 3-5, 769.

Catalan, L.J.J., Buset, K.C., and Yin, G.H. (2002) Reactivity of Oxidized Sulfidic Mine

Tailings During Lime Treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 12, 2766.

Chaillou, G., Anschutz, P., Lavaux, G., Schafer, J., Blanc, G. (2002) The Distribution

of Mo, U, and Cd in Relation to Major Redox Species in Muddy Sediments of the Bay

of Biscay. Mar. Chem., 80, 41-59.

Chakraborty, N., Sarkar, G.M., and Lahiri, S.C. (2002) Effect of Pesticide (Tara-909)

on Biomethanation of Sewage Sludge and Isolated Methanogens. Biomass

Bioenerg., 23, 1, 75.

Chan, G.Y.S., Chu, L.M., and Wong, M.H. (2002) Effects of Leachate Recirculation

on Biogas Production from Landfill Co-disposal of Municipal Solid Waste, Sewage

Sludge and Marine Sediment. Environ. Pollut., 118, 3, 393.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Chang, J., Lee, K., and Lin, P. (2002) Biohydrogen Production with Fixed-Bed

Bioreactors. Int. J. Hydro. Energ., 27, 11-12, 1167.

Chao, C., Chiang, H., and Chen, C. (2002) Pyrolytic Kinetics of Sludge from a

Petrochemical Factory Wastewater Treatment Plant––A Transition State Theory

Approach. Chemosphere, 49, 4, 431.

Chattopadhyay, D., Chattopadhyay, S., Lyon, W.G., Wilson, J.T. (2002) Effect of

Surfactants on the Survival and Sorption of Viruses. Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 19,

4017.

Chaudhuri, P., Kar, S., and Gupta, S.K. (2002) Impact of Municipal and Industrial

Liquid Wastes on Water Quality and its Importance as Potential Water Resources. J.

Sci. Ind. Res. India, 61, 11, 948.

Chen, G., and Strevett, K.A. (2002) Surface Free Energy Relationships Used to

Evaluate Microbial Transport. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 128, 5, 408.

Chen, X., Jeyaseelan, S., and Graham, N. (2002) Physical and Chemical Properties

Study of the Activated Carbon Made from Sewage Sludge. Waste Manage., 22, 7,

755.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Clark, R. A., Stanley, C.D., McNeal, B.L., and Macleod, B.W. (2002) Impact of

Agricultural Land Use on Nitrate Levels in Lake Manatee, Florida. J. Soil Water

Conserv., 57, 2, 106.

Clausen, G.B., Larsen, L., Johnsen, K., de Lipthay, J.R., and Aamand, J. (2002)

Quantification of the Atrazine-Degrading Pseudomonas Sp Strain ADP in Aquifer

Sediment by Quantitative Competitive Polymerase Chain Reaction. Fems Microbiol.

Ecol., 41, 3, 221.

Clement, J.C., Pinay, G., and Marmonier, P. (2002) Seasonal Dynamics of

Denitrification Along Topohydrosequences in Three Different Riparian Wetlands. J.

Environ. Qual., 31, 1025.

Considine, R.F., Dixon, D.R., and Drummond, C.J. (2002) Oocysts of

Cryptosporidium Parvum and Model Sand Surfaces in Aqueous Solutions: an Atomic

Force Microscope (AFM) Study. Water Res., 36, 14, 3421.

Coquet, Y., and Barriuso, E. (2002) Spatial Variability of Pesticide Adsorption within

the Topsoil of a Small Agricultural Catchment. Agronomie, 22, 4, 389.

Crouau, Y., Gisclard, C., and Perotti, P. (2002) The Use of Folsomia Candida

(Collembola, Isotomidae) In Bioassays of Waste. Appl. Soil Ecol., 19, 1, 65.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Cruzado, A., Velasquez, Z., Perez, M.C., Bahamon, N., Grimaldo, N.S., and Ridolfi,

F. (2002) Nutrient Fluxes from the Ebro River and Subsequent Across-Shelf

Dispersion. Cont. Shelf Res., 22, 2, 349.

Cui, H., Hwang, H., Zeng, K., Glover, H., Yu, H., and Li, Y. (2002) Riboflavin-

Photosensitized Degradation of Atrazine in a Freshwater Environment.

Chemosphere, 47, 9, 991.

Dabrowski, J.M., Peall, S.K.C., Reineeke, A.J., Liess, M., and Schulz, R. (2002)

Runoff- Related Pesticide Input into the Lourens River, South Africa: Basic Data for

Exposure Assessment and Risk Mitigation at the Catchment Scale. Water Air Soil

Pollut., 135, 1-4, 265.

de la Torre, F.R., Ferrari, L., and Salibian, A. (2002) Freshwater Pollution Biomarker:

Response of Brain Acetylcholinesterase Activity in Two Fish Species. Comp.

Biochem. Phys. C, 131, 3, 271.

De Melo, W.J., Marques, M.O., Ferreira, M.E., De Melo, G.M.P., and De Melo, V. P.,

(2002) Chemical Properties and Enzyme Activity in a Sewage Sludge-Treated Soil.

Commun. Soil Sci. Plan., 33, 9-10, 1643.

de Siloniz, M.I., Balsalobre, L., Alba, C., Valderrama, M.J., and Peinado, J.M. (2002)

Feasibility of Copper Uptake by the Yeast Pichia Guilliermondii Isolated from

Sewage Sludge. Res. Microbiol., 153, 3, 173.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Debosz, K., Petersen, S.O, Kure, L.K., and Ambus, P. (2002) Evaluating Effects of

Sewage Sludge and Household Compost on Soil Physical, Chemical and

Microbiological Properties. Appl. Soil Ecol., 19, 3, 237.

Delin, G. N., and Landon, M.K. (2002) Effects of Surface Run-Off on the Transport of

Agricultural Chemicals to Ground Water in a Sandplain Setting. Sci. Total Environ.,

295, 1-3, 143.

Dellwig, O., Bottcher, M.E., Lipinski, M., Brumsack, H.J. (2002) Trace Metals in

Holocene Coastal Peats and their Relation to Pyrite Formation (NW Germany).

Chem. Geol., 182, 2-4, 423.

Dinnes, D.L., Karlen, D.L., Jaynes, D.B., Kaspar, T.C, Hatfield, J.L., Colvin, T.S., and

Cambardella, C.A. (2002) Nitrogen Management Strategies to Reduce Nitrate

Leaching in Tile-Drained Midwestern Soils. Agron. J., 94, 1, 153.

Dogru, M., Midilli, A., and Howarth, C.R. (2002) Gasification of Sewage Sludge using

a Throated Downdraft Gasifier and Uncertainty Analysis. Fuel Process. Technol., 75,

1, 55.

Ehlken, S, and Kirchner, G. (2002) Environmental Processes Affecting Plant Root

Uptake of Radioactive Trace Elements and Variability of Transfer Factor Data: A

Review. J. Environ. Radioactiv., 58, 2-3, 97.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Ellickson, K.M., Schopfer, C.J., and Lioy, P.J. (2002) The Bioaccessibility of Low

Level Radionuclides from Two Savannah River Site Soils. Health Phys., 83, 4, 476.

Esteves da Silva, J.C.G., and Oliveira, C.J.S. (2002) Metal Ion Complexation

Properties of Fulvic Acids Extracted from Composted Sewage Sludge as Compared

to a Soil Fulvic Acid. Water Res., 36, 13, 3404.

Fayer, R., Trout, J.M., Lewis, E.J., Xiao, L., Lal, A., Jenkins, M.C., and Graczyk, T.K.

(2002) Temporal Variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol.

Res., 88, 11, 998.

Fernandez, A., Wendt, J.O.L., Cenni, R., Young, R.S., and Witten, M.L. (2002)

Resuspension of Coal and Coal/Municipal Sewage Sludge Combustion Generated

Fine Particles for Inhalation Health Effects Studies. Sci. Total Environ., 287, 3, 265.

Fesenko, S.V., Spiridonov, S.I., Sanzharova, N.I., Anisimov, V.S., and Aleksakhin,

R.M. Simulation of Cs-137 Migration Over the Soil-Plant System of Peat Soils

Contaminated After the Chernobyl Accident. Russ. J. Ecol., 33, 3, 170.

Flammarion, P., Noury, P., and Garric, J. (2002) The Measurement of

Cholinesterase Activities as a Biomarker in Chub (Leuciscus cephalus): the Fish

Length should not be Ignored. Environ. Pollut., 120, 2, 325.

Frissel, M.J., Deb, D.L., Fathony, M., Lin, Y.M., Mollah, A.S., Ngo, N.T., Othman, I.,

Robinson, W.L., Skarlou-Alexiou, V., Topcuoglu, S., Twining, J.R., Uchida, S., and

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Wasserman, M.A. (2002) Generic Values For Soil-To-Plant Transfer Factors of

Radiocesium. J. Environ. Radioactiv., 58, 2-3, 113.

Froese, K.L., Sinclair, M.I., and Hrudey, S.E. (2002) Trichloroacetic Acid as a

Biomarker of Exposure to Disinfection by-Products in Drinking Water: A Human

Exposure Trial in Adelaide, Australia. Environ. Health Persp., 110, 7, 679.

Furimsky, E. (2002) Sydney Tar Ponds: Some Problems in Quantifying Toxic Waste.

Environ. Manage., 30, 6, 872.

Ganguli, R., Wilson, T.E., and Bandopadhyay, S. (2002) STARES: An Expert

System for Marine Disposal of Mine Tailings. Min. Eng. Littleton., 54, 4, 29.

Gasco, C., Anton, M.P., Pozuelo, M., Meral, J., Gonzalez, A.M., Papucci, C., and

Delfanti, R. (2002) Distributions of Pu, Am and Cs in Margin Sediments from the

Western Mediterranean (Spanish Coast). J. Environ. Radioactiv., 59, 1, 75.

Gaynor, J.D., Tan, C.S., Drury, C.F., Welacky, T.W., Ng, H.Y.F., and Reynolds, W.D.

(2002) Runoff and Drainage Losses of Atrazine, Metribuzin, and Metolachlor in

Three Water Management Systems. J. Environ. Qual., 31, 1, 300.

Geffard, A., Amiard, J.C., and Amiard-Triquet, C. (2002) Use of Metallothionein in

Gills from Oysters (Crassostrea Gigas) as a Biomarker: Seasonal and Intersite

Fluctuations. Biomarkers, 7, 2, 123.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Georgieva, S.S., McGrath, S.P., Hooper, D.J., and Chambers, B.S. (2002)

Nematode Communities Under Stress: the Long-term Effects of Heavy Metals in Soil

Treated with Sewage Sludge. Appl. Soil Ecol., 20, 1, 27.

Gitahi, S.M., Harper, D.M., Muchuri, S.M., Tole, M.P., and Ng’ang’a, R.N. (2002)

Organochlorine and Organophosphorus Pesticide Concentrations in Water,

Sediment, and Selected Organisms in Lake Naivasha (Kenya). Hydrobiologia, 488,

1-3, 123.

Gitis, V., Adin, A., Nasser, A., Gun, J., and Lev, O. (2002) Fluorescent Dye Labeled

Bacteriophages - a New Tracer for the Investigation of Viral Transport in Porous

Media: 1. Introduction and Characterization. Water Res., 36, 17, 4227.

Gray, M., and Henry, C. (2002) Phosphorus and Nitrogen Runoff from a Forested

Watershed Fertilized With Biosolids. J. Environ. Qual., 31, 3, 926.

Gulin, S.B., Polikarpov, G.G., Egorov, V.N., Martin, J.M., Korotkov, A.A., and

Stokozov, N.A. (2002) Radioactive Contamination of the North-Western Black Sea

Sediments. Estuar. Coast. Shelf S., 54, 3, 541.

Hagedorn, F., and Bundt, M. (2002) The Age of Preferential Flow Paths. Geoderma,

108, 1-2, 119.

Hahn, M.E. (2002) Biomarkers and Bioassays for Detecting Dioxin-Like Compounds

in the Marine Environment. Sci. Total. Environ., 289, 1-3, 49.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Hakvoort, H, de Haan, J., Jordans, R., Vos, R., Peters, S., and Rijkeboer, M. (2002)

Towards Airborne Remote Sensing of Water Quality in the Netherlands - Validation

and Error Analysis. ISPRS J. Photogramm., 57, 3, 171.

Hamilton, P.D., Standen, G, and Parsons, S.A. (2002) Using Particle Monitors to

Minimize Cryptosporidium Risk: A Review. J. Water Supply Res., 51, 7, 351.

Healy, M. and Cawley, A.M. (2002) Nutrient Processing Capacity of a Constructed

Wetland in Western Ireland. J. Environ. Qual., 31, 5, 1739.

Hernandez, T., Moral, R., Perez-Espinosa, A., Moreno-Caselles, J., Perez-Murcia,

M.D., and Garcia, C. (2002) Nitrogen Mineralisation Potential in Calcareous Soils

Amended with Sewage Sludge. Bioresource Technol., 83, 3, 213.

Hodgkinson, R.A., Chambers, B.J., Withers, P.J.A., and Cross, R. (2002)

Phosphorus Losses to Surface Waters Following Organic Manure Applications to a

Drained Clay Soil. Agr. Water. Manage., 57, 2, 155.

Howe, A.D., Forster, S., Morton, S., Marshall, R., Osborn, K.S., Wright, P., Hunter,

P.R. (2002) Cryptosporidium Oocysts in a Water Supply Associated with a

Cryptosporidiosis Outbreak. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 8, 6, 619.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Hudak, P.F. (2002) Associations Between Rural Land Uses and Ground Water

Quality in the Ogallala Aquifer, Northwest Texas. Ground Water Monitor. R., 22, 4,

117.

Hyder, P., Simpson, J.H., Christopoulos, S., and Krestenitis, Y. (2002) The Seasonal

Cycles of Stratification in the Thermaikos Gulf Region of Freshwater Influence

(ROFI), North-west Aegean. Cont. Shelf Res., 22, 17, 2573.

Inguanzo, M., Domínguez, A., Menéndez, J.A., Blanco, C.G., and Pis, J.J. (2002) On

the Pyrolysis of Sewage Sludge: the Influence of Pyrolysis Conditions on Solid,

Liquid and Gas Fractions. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol., 63, 1, 209.

Jenkins, M.B., Bowman, D.D., Fogarty, E.A., and Ghiorse, W.C. (2002)

Cryptosporidium Parvum Oocyst Inactivation in Three Soil Types at Various

Temperatures and Water Potentials. Soil Bio. Biochem., 34, 8, 1101.

Jimenez-Montealegre, R., Verdegem, M.C.J., van Dam, A., Verreth, J.A.J. (2002)

Conceptualization and Validation of a Dynamic Model for the Simulation of Nitrogen

Transformations and Fluxes in Fish Ponds. Ecol. Model, 147, 2, 123.

Jurjovec, J., Ptacek, C.J., and Blowes, D.W. (2002) Acid Neutralization Mechanisms

and Metal Release in Mine Tailings: A Laboratory Column Experiment. Geochim.

Cosmochim. Ac., 66, 9, 1511.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Kakiuchi, H., Amano, H., and Ichimasa, M. (2002) Chemical Speciation of

Radionuclides Through the Microbial Process in Soils. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Ch., 252,

2, 437.

Karaca, A., Naseby, D.C., and Lynch, J.M. (2002) Effect of Cadmium-Contamination

with Sewage Sludge and Phosphate Fertilizer Amendments on Soil Enzyme

Activities, Microbial Structure and Available Cadmium. Biol. Fert. Soils, 35, 6, 428.

Karanis, P., Papadopoulou, C., Kimura, A., Economou, E., Kourenti, C., and Sakkas,

H. (2002) Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Natural, Drinking, and Recreational Water

of Northwestern Greece. Acta Hydroch. Hydrob., 30, 1, 49.

Karl, D., Michealis, A., Bergman, B., Capone, D., Carpenter, E., Letelier, R.,

Lipschultz, F., Paerl, H., Sigman, D., and Stal, L. (2002) Dinitrogen fixation in the

World’s Oceans. Biogeochemistry, 57, 1, 47.

Kato, S., Jenkins, M.B., Fogarty, E.A., and Bowman, D.D. (2002) Effects of Freeze-

Thaw Events on the Viability of Cryptosporidium Parvum Oocysts in Soil. J.

Parasitol., 88, 4, 718.

Khan, M., and Scullion, J. (2002) Effects of Metal (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb or Zn) Enrichment

of Sewage-Sludge on Soil Micro-Organisms and their Activities. Appl. Soil Ecol., 20,

2, 145.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Khatib, L.A., Tsai, Y.L., and Olson, B.H. (2002) A Biomarker for the Identification of

Cattle Fecal Pollution in Water Using the Ltiia Toxin Gene from Enterotoxigenic

Escherichia Coli. Appl. Microbiol. Biot., 59, 1, 97.

Kim, S.B., and Corapcioglu, M.Y. (2002) Contaminant Transport in Dual-Porosity

Media with Dissolved Organic Matter and Bacteria Present as Mobile Colloids. J.

Contam. Hydrol., 59, 3-4, 267.

Kim, M.J., Ahn, K.H., and Jung, Y.J. (2002) Distribution of Onorganic Arsenic

Species in Mine Tailings of Abandoned Mines from Korea. Chemosphere. 49, 3, 307.

Kinner, N.E., Harvey, R.W., Shay, D.M., Metge, D.W., and Warren, A. (2002) Field

Evidence for a Protistan Role in an Organically-Contaminated Aquifer. Environ. Sci.

Technol., 36, 20, 4312.

Klumpp, D.W., Humphrey, C., Hong, H.S., and Feng, T. (2002) Toxic Contaminants

and their Biological Effects in Coastal Waters of Xiamen, China. II. Biomarkers and

Embryo Malformation Rates as Indicators of Pollution Stress in Fish. Mar. Pollut.

Bull., 44, 8, 761.

Konda, L.N., Czinkota, I., Fuleky, G., and Morovjan, G. (2002a) Modeling of Single-

Step and Multistep Adsorption İsotherms of Organic Pesticides On Soil. J. Agr. Food

Chem., 50, 25, 7326.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Konda, L.N., Fuleky, G., and Morovjan, G. (2002b) Subcritical Water Extraction to

Evaluate Desorption Behavior of Organic Pesticides in Soil. J. Agr. Food Chem., 50,

8, 2338.

Korboulewsky, N., Bonina, G., and Massianib, C. (2002) Biological and

Ecophysiological Reactions of White Wall Rocket (Diplotaxis Erucoides L.) Grown on

Sewage Sludge Compost. Environ. Pollut., 117, 2, 365.

Kotova, A., and Sanzharova, N. (2002) The Fate of Radionuclides in Different Soil

Types. Eurasian Soil Sci., 35, 1, 99.

Krogman, U., and Chiang, H.N.C. (2002) Selected Nutrients and Heavy Metals in

Sewage Sludge from New Jersey POTWs. J. Am. Water Resour. As., 38, 3, 681.

Kruglyakova, R., Gubanov, Y., Kruglyakov, V., and Prokoptsev, G. (2002)

Assessment of Technogenic and Natural Hydrocarbon Supply into the Black Sea

and Seabed Sediments. Cont. Shelf Res., 22, 16, 2395.

Kumazawa, K. (2002) Nitrogen Fertilization and Nitrate Pollution in Groundwater in

Japan: Present Status and Measures for Sustainable Agriculture. Nutr. Cycl.

Agroecosys., 63, 2, 129.

Lagadic, L. (2002) Biomarkers: Useful Tools for the Monitoring of Aquatic

Environments. Rev. Med. Vet-Toulouse, 153, 8-9, 581.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Lewis, W.M. (2002) Yield of Nitrogen from Minimally Disturbed Watersheds of the

United States. Biogeochemistry, 57, 1, 375.

Liikanen, A., Flojt, L., and Martikainen, P. (2002) Gas Dynamics in Eutrophic Lake

Sediments Affected by Oxygen, Nitrate and Sulfate. J. Environ. Qual., 31, 1, 338.

Ling, T.Y., Achberger, E.C., Drapcho, C.M., and Bengtson, R.L. (2002) Quantifying

Adsorption of an Indicator Bacteria in a Soil-Water System. T. ASAE, 45, 3, 669.

Loge, F.N., and Thompson, D.E., and Call, D.R. (2002) PCR Detection of Specific

Pathogens in Water: A Risk-Based Analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 12, 2754.

Logsdon, S.D., Kaspar, T.C., Meek, D.W., and Prueger, J.H. (2002) Nitrate Leaching

as Influenced by Cover Crops in Large Soil Monoliths. Agron. J., 94, 4 807.

Lombardi, A.T., and Garcia, O. (2002) Biological Leaching of Mn, Al, Zn, Cu and Ti in

an Anaerobic Sewage Sludge Effectuated by Thiobacillus Ferrooxidans and its Effect

on Metal Partitioning. Water Res., 36, 13, 3193.

Lombia, E., Zhao, F.J, Zhang, G.Y, Sun, B., Fitz, W., Zhang, H., and McGrath, S.P.

(2002) In Situ Fixation of Metals in Soils Using Bauxite Residue: Chemical

Assessment. Environ. Pollut., 118, 3, 435.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Lujaniene, G., Plukis, A., Kimtys, E., Remeikis, V., Jankunaite, D., and Ogorodnikov,

B.I. (2002) Study of Cs-137, Sr-90, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-238 and Am-241 Behavior in

the Chernobyl Soil. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Ch., 251, 1, 59-68.

Macauley, J.M., Summers, J.K., Engle, V.D., and Harwell, L.C. (2002) The

Ecological Condition of South Florida Estuaries. Environ. Monit. Assess., 75, 3, 253.

Mackenzie, F.T., Ver, L.M., and Lerman, A. (2002) Century-Scale Nitrogen and

Phosphorus Controls of the Carbon Cycle. Chem. Geol., 190, 1-4, 13.

Madyiwa, S., Chimbari, M., Nyamangara, J., and Bangira, C. (2002) Cumulative

Effects of Sewage Sludge and Effluent Mixture Application on Soil Properties of a

Sandy Soil Under a Mixture of Star and Kikuyu Grasses in Zimbabwe. Phys. Chem.

Earth, 27, 11-12, 747.

Makhon'ko, K.P., and Kim, V.M. (2002) Dynamics of Air, Soil, and Water

Contamination by Technogenic Radionuclides on the Territory of the USSR and

Russia in 1954-2000. Atom Energy, 92, 5, 421.

Matthews, R., Hilles, M., and Pelletier, G. (2002) Determining Trophic State in Lake

Whatcom, Washington (USA), a Soft Water Lake Exhibiting Seasonal Nitrogen

Limitation. Hydrobiologia, 468, 1-3, 107.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Matthiessen, P., and Law, R.J. (2002) Contaminants and their Effects on Estuarine

and Coastal Organisms in the United Kingdom in the Late Twentieth Century.

Environ. Pollut., 120, 3, 739.

Mayer, B., Boyer, E.W., Goodale, C., Jaworski, N.A., Van Breemen, N., Howarth,

R.W., Seitzinger, S., Billen, G., Lajtha, L.J., Nosal, M., and Paustian, K. (2002)

Sources of Nitrate in Rivers Draining Sixteen Watersheds in the Northeastern US:

Isotopic Constrains. Biogeochemistry, 57, 1, 171.

McCarty, L.S., Power, M., and Munkittrick, K.R. (2002) Bioindicators versus

Biomarkers in Ecological Risk Assessment. Hum. Ecol. Risk. Assess., 8, 1, 159.

McGechan, M.B., and Lewis D.R. (2002) Transport of Particulate and Colloid-Sorbed

Contaminants Through Soil, Part 1: General Principles. Biosyst. Eng., 83, 3, 255.

McGregor, R.G., and Blowes, D.W. (2002) The Physical, Chemical and Mineralogical

Properties of Three Cemented Layers within Sulfide-bearing Mine Tailings. J.

Geochem. Explor., 76, 3, 195.

McIsaac, G.F., David, M.B., Gertner, G.Z., and Goolsby, D.A. (2002) Relating Net

Nitrogen Input in the Mississipi River Basin to Nitrate Flux in the Lower Mississipi

River: A Comparison of Approaches. J. Environ. Qual., 31, 5, 1610.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Mehmannavaz, R., Prasher S.O., and Ahmad, D. (2002) Subsurface Irrigation as a

Microbial Delivery Tool for Bioaugmentation: Transport, Distribution and Survival in

Large Packed Soil Columns. Environ. Technol., 23, 6, 707.

Menendez, J.A., Inguanzo, M., and Pis, J.J. (2002) Microwave-induced Pyrolysis of

Sewage Sludge. Water Res., 36, 13, 3261.

Midilli, A., Dogru, M., Akay, G., and Howarth, C.R. (2002) Hydrogen Production from

Sewage Sludge Via a Fixed Bed Gasifier Product Gas. Int. J. Hydrogen. Energ., 27,

10, 1035.

Mikhailovskaya, L.N., Molchanova, I.V., Pozolotina, V.N., and Karavaeva, E.N.

(2002) Experimental Assessment of the Water Migration of Radionuclides in

Floodplain Soils of the Techa River. Eurasian. Soil Sci., 35, 9, 1003.

Mikkelsen, L.H., and Keiding, K. (2002) Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Full

Scale Sewage Sludges with Implications to Dewatering. Water Res., 36, 10, 2451.

Milton, A., Johnson, M.S., and Cooke, J.A. (2002) Lead within Ecosystems on

Metalliferous Mine Tailings in Wales and Ireland. Sci. Total Environ., 299, 1-3, 177.

Monte, L. (2002) A General Methodology for Structuring Models to Predict the Long-

Term Migration of Radionuclides from Catchments. J. Environ. Radioactiv., 59, 2,

153.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Moreno, J.L., Hernandez, T., Perez, A., and Garcia, C. (2002) Toxicity of Cadmium

to Soil Microbial Activity: Effect of Sewage Sludge Addition to Soil on the Ecological

Dose. Appl. Soil Ecol., 21, 2, 149.

Mukherjee, I., and Gopal, M. (2002) Organochlorine Insecticide Residues in Drinking

and Groundwater in and Around Delhi. Environ. Monit. Assess., 76, 2, 185.

Mwevura, H., Othman O.C., and Mhehe, G.L. (2002) Organochlorine Pesticide

Residues in Sediments and Biota from the Coastal Area of Dar Es Salaam City,

Tanzania, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 45, 262.

Nakano, K., and Matsumura, M. (2002) Utilization of Dehydrated Sewage Sludge as

an Alternative Nutrient to Stimulate Lipid Waste Degradation by the Thermophilic

Oxic Process. J. Biosci. Bioeng., 94, 2, 113.

Namkoong, W., Hwang, E., Park, J., and Choi, J. (2002) Bioremediation of Diesel-

Contaminated Soil with Composting. Environ. Pollut., 199, 1, 23.

Nasser, A.M., Glozman, R., and Nitzan, Y. (2002) Contribution of Microbial Activity to

Virus Reduction in Saturated Soil. Water Res., 36, 10, 2589.

Neelakantan, T.R., Lingireddy, S., and Brion, G.M. (2002) Effectiveness of Different

Artificial Neural Network Training Algorithms in Predicting Protozoa Risks in Surface

Waters. J. Environ. Eng-Asce., 128, 6, 533.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

O’Shea, K.E., Kim, D.K., Wu, T., Cooper, W.J., and Mezyk, S.P., (2002). The

Degradation of MTBE–BTEX Mixtures by Gamma Radiolysis. A Kinetic Modeling

Study. Radiat. Phys. Chem., 65, 4-5, 343.

Osuna-Flores, I., and Riva, M.C. (2002) Organochlorine Pesticide Residue

Concentrations in Shrimps, Sediments, and Surface Water from Bay of Ohuira,

Topolobampo, Sinaloa, Mexico. B. Environ. Contam. Tox., 68, 4, 532.

Oudeh, M., Khan, M., and Scullion, J. (2002) Plant Accumulation of Potentially Toxic

Elements in Sewage Sludge as Affected by Soil Organic Matter Level and

Mycorrhizal Fungi. Environ. Pollut., 116, 2, 293.

Owen, R., Buxton, L., Sarkis, S., Toaspern, M., Knap, A., and Depledge, M. (2002)

An Evaluation of Hemolymph Cholinesterase Activities in the Tropical Scallop,

Euvola (Pecten) Ziczac, for the Rapid Assessment of Pesticide Exposure. Mar.

Pollut. Bull., 44, 10, 1010.

Papajova, I., Juris, P., Laukova, A., Rataj, D., Vasilkova, Z., and Ilavska, D. (2002)

Transport of Ascaris Suum Eggs, Bacteria and Chemical Pollutants from Livestock

Slurry through the Soil Horizon. Helminthologia, 39, 2, 77.

Paraiba, L.C., and Spadotto, C.A. (2002) Soil Temperature Effect in Calculating

Attenuation and Retardation Factors. Chemosphere, 48, 9, 905.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Paramasivam, S., Alva, A. K., Fares, A., and Sajwan, K. S. (2002) Fate of Nitrate

and Bromide in an Unsaturated Zone of a Sandy Soil under Citrus Production. J.

Environ. Qual., 31, 671.

Patterson, B. M., Franzmann, P. D., Davis, G.B., Elbers, J., and Zappia, L.R. (2002)

Using Polymer Mats to Biodegrade Atrazine in Groundwater: Laboratory Column

Experiments. J. Contam. Hydrol., 54, 3-4, 195.

Pempkowiak, J., Obarska-Pernpkowiak, H. (2002) Long-term Changes in Sewage

Sludge Stored in a Reed Bed. Sci. Total. Environ., 297, 1-3, 59.

Picher, S., Drogui, P., Guay, P., and Blais, U. (2002) Wastewater Sludge and Pig

Manure Used as Culture Media for Bioleaching of Metal Sulphides. Hydrometallurgy,

65, 2-3, 177.

Pletschke, B.I., Rose, P.D., and Whiteley, C.G. (2002) The Enzymology of Sludge

Solubilisation Utilising Sulphate Reducing Systems. Identification and Properties of

ATP-Sulphurylases. Enzyme Microb. Tech., 31, 3, 329.

Poon, C.B., and Au, S.M. (2002) Modelling the Cs-137 Ingestion Dose From

Consumption of Marine Fish in Hong Kong. Radiat. Prot. Dosim., 98, 2, 199.

Pottinger, T.G., Carrick, T.R., and Yeomans, W.E. (2002) The Three-Spined

Stickleback as an Environmental Sentinel: Effects of Stressors on Whole-Body

Physiological Indices. J. Fish. Biol., 61, 1, 207.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Prego, R. (2002) Nitrogen Fluxes and Budget Seasonally in the Ria Vigo (NW

Iberian Peninsula). Hydrobiologia, 475, 1, 161.

Prenafeta-Boldu, F.X., Vervoort J., Grotenhuis, J.T.C., and Van Groenestijn, J.W.,

(2002) Substrate İnteractions During the Biodegradation of Benzene, Toluene,

Ethylbenzene, and Xylene (BTEX) Hydrocarbons by the Fungus Cladophialophora

sp Strain T1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 68, 6, 2660.

Pucarevic, M., Sovljanski, R., Lazic, S., and Marjanovic, N. (2002) Atrazine in

Groundwater of Vojvodina Province. Water Res., 36, 20, 5120.

Quintero-Betancourt, W., Peele, E.R., and Rose, J.B. (2002) Cryptosporidium

Parvum and Cyclospora Cayetanensis: A Review of Laboratory Methods for

Detection of these Waterborne Parasites. J. Microbiol. Meth., 49, 3, 209.

Ramaiah, N., Kenkre V.D., and Verlecar, X.N. (2002) Marine Environmental Pollution

Stress Detection Through Direct Viable Counts of Bacteria. Water Res., 36, 2383.

Rao, U., Fehn, U., Muramatsu, Y., McNeil, H., Sharma, P., and Elmore, D. (2002)

Tracing the History of Nuclear Releases: Determination of I-129 in Tree Rings.

Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 6, 1271.

Ren, J., and Jiang, K. (2002) Atrazine and its degradation products in surface and

ground waters in Zhangjiako District, China. Chinese Sci. Bull., 47, 19, 1612.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Richards, R.P., and Baker, D.B. (2002) Trends in Water Quality in LEASEQ Rivers

and Streams (Northwestern Ohio), 1975–1995. J. Environ. Qual., 31, 1, 90.

Rose, J.B., Huffman, D.E., and Gennaccaro, A. (2002) Risk and Control of

Waterborne Cryptosporidiosis. Fems Microbiol. Rev., 26, 2, 113.

Sabbarese, C., Stellato, L., Cotrufo, M.F., D'Onofrio, A., Ermice, A., Terrasi, F., and

Alfieri, S. (2002) Transfer of Cs-137 and Co-60 from Irrigation Water to a Soil-

Tomato Plant System. J. Environ. Radioactiv., 61, 1, 21.

Sanada, Y., Matsunaga, T., Yanase, N., Nagao, S., Amano, H., Takada, H., and

Tkachenko, Y. (2002) Accumulation and Potential Dissolution of Chernobyl-Derived

Radionuclides in River Bottom Sediment. Appl. Radiat. Isotopes, 56, 5, 751.

Saquet, M., Halden, N.M., Babaluk, J., Campbell, J.L., and Nejedly, Z. (2002) Micro-

PIXE Analysis of Trace Element Variation in Otoliths from Fish Collected Near Acid

Mine Tailings: Potential for Monitoring Contaminant Dispersal. Nucl. Instrum. Meth.

B, 189.

Schijven, J.F., and Simunek, J. (2002) Kinetic Modeling of Virus Transport at the

Field Scale. J. Contam. Hydrol., 55, 1-2, 113.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Schijven, J.F., Hassanizadeh, S.M., and de Bruin, H.A.M. (2002) Column

Experiments to Study Nonlinear Removal of Bacteriophages by Passage Through

Saturated Dune Sand. J. Contam. Hydrol., 58, 3-4, 243.

Schijven, J.F., and Hassanizadeh, S.M. (2002) Virus Removal by Soil Passage at

Field Scale and Groundwater Protection of Sandy Aquifers. Water Sci. Technol., 46,

3, 123.

Schreiber, M.E., and Bahr, J.M., (2002) Nitrate-Enhanced Bioremediation of BTEX-

Contaminated Groundwater: Parameter Estimation from Natural-Gradient Tracer

Experiments. J. Contam. Hydrol., 55, 1-2, 29.

Seitzinger, S.P., Styles, R.V., Boyer, E.W., Alexander, R.B., Billen, G., Howarth,

R.W., Mayer, B., and van Breemen, N. (2002) Nitrogen Retention in Rivers: Model

Development and Application to Watersheds in the Northeastern U.S.A.

Biogeochemistry, 57, 1, 199.

Shammon, T.M., and Hartnoll, R.G. (2002)The Winter and Summer Partitioning of

Dissolved Nitrogen and Phosphorus. Observations Across the Irish Sea During 1997

and 1998. Hydrobiologia, 475, 1, 173.

Shein, E.V., Polyanskaya, L.M., and Devin, B.A. (2002) Transport of Microorganisms

in Soils: Physicochemical Approach and Mathematical Modeling. Eurasian Soil Sci.,

35, 5, 500.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Shuman, L.M. (2002) Phosphorus and Nitrate Nitrogen in Runoff Following Fertilizer

Application to Turfgrass. J. Environ. Qual., 31, 5, 1710.

Siegener, R, and Chen R.F. (2002) Caffeine in Boston Harbor Seawater. Mar. Pollut.

Bull., 44, 5, 383.

Sinaj, S., Stamm, C., Toor, G.S., Condron, L.M., Hendry, T., Di, H.J., Cameron, K.C.,

and Frossard, E. (2002) Phosphorus Exchangeability and Leaching Losses from

Two Grassland Soils. J. Environ. Qual., 31, 1, 319.

Singh, B., and Gupta, A. (2002) Monitoring of Pesticide Residues in Different

Sources of Drinking Water of Jaipur, India. B. Environ. Contam. Tox., 69, 1, 43.

Solecki, J., and Chibowski, S. (2002) Studies on Horizontal and Vertical Migration of

Sr-90 in Soil Systems Pol. J. Environ. Stud., 11, 2, 157.

Soulsby, C., Gibbins C., Wade A.J., Smart, R., and Helliwell, R. (2002) Water Quality

in the Scottish Uplands: a Hydrological Perspective on Catchment. Sci. Total

Environ., 294, 1-3, 73.

Spaulding, R.S., and Charles, M.J. (2002) Comparison of Methods for Extraction,

Storage , and Silylation of Pentafluorobenzyl Derivatives of Carbonly Compounds

and Multi-Functional Carbonly Compounds. Anal Bioanal. Chem., 372, 7-8, 808.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Spencer, T., and Viles, H. (2002) Bioconstruction, Bioerosion and Disturbance on

Tropical Coasts: Coral Reefs and Rocky Limestone Shores, Geomorphology, 48, 1-

3, 23.

Spruill, B.T., Showers, W.J., and Howe, S.S. (2002) Application of Classification-

Tree Methods to Identify Nitrate Sources in Ground Water. J. Environ. Qual., 31, 5,

1538.

Sroor, A., Afifi, S.Y., Abdel-Haleem, A.S., Salman, A.B., and Abdel-Sammad, M.

(2002) Environmental Pollutant Isotope Measurements and Natural Radioactivity

Assessment for North Tushki Area, South Western Desert, Egypt. Appl. Radiat.

Isotopes, 57, 3, 427.

Su, C.C., and Huh, C.A. (2002) Pb-210 Cs-137 and Pu-231,Pu-240 in East China

Sea Sediments: Sources, Pathways and Budgets of Sediments and Radionuclides.

Mar. Geol., 183, 1-4, 163.

St John, MG., Bagatto, G., Behan-Pelletier, V., Lindquist, E.E. Shorthouse, JD., and

Smith, I.M. (2002) Mite (Acari) Colonization of Vegetated Mine Tailings near

Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Plant Soil, 245, 2, 295.

Standring, W.J.F., Oughton, D.H., and Salbu, B. (2002) Remobilisation of Cd-109,

Zn-65 and Mn-54 from Freshwater-Labelled River Sediments when Mixed with

Seawater. Environ. Int., 28, 3, 185.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Suh, Y.J., and Rousseaux, P. (2002) An LCA of Alternative Wastewater Sludge

Treatment Scenarios. Resour. Conserv. Recy., 35, 3, 191.

Tan, C.S., Drury, C.F., Reynolds, W.D., Groenevelt, P.H., and Dadfar, H. (2002)

Water and Nitrate Loss Through Tiles Under a Clay Loam Soil in Ontario After 42

Years of Consistent Fertilization and Crop Rotation. Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 93, 1-3,

121.

Tappe, W., Groeneweg, J., and Jantsch, B. (2002) Diffuse Atrazine Pollution in

German Aquifers. Biodegradation, 13, 1, 3.

Teunis, P.F.M., and Havelaar, A.H. (2002) Risk Assessment for Protozoan

Parasites. Int. Biodeter. Biodegr., 50, 3-4, 185.

Thompson, S., Budzinski, H., LeMenach, K., Letellier, M., and Garrigues, P. (2002)

Multi-Residue Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Polychlorobiphenyls,

and Organochlorine Pesticides in Marine Sediments. Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 372, 1,

196.

Thornton, D.C.O. (2002) Diatom Aggregation in the Sea: Mechanisms and

Ecological Implications. Eur. J. Phycol., 37, 2, 149.

Tomkins, B.A., and Ilgner, R.H. (2002) Determination of Atrazine and Four

Organophosphorus Pesticides in Ground water Using Solid Phase Microextraction

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

(SPME) Followed by Gas Chromatography with Selected-ion Monitoring. J.

Chromatogr. A, 972, 2, 183.

Tong, S.T.Y, and Chen, W.L. (2002) Modeling the Relationship Between Land Use

and Surface Water Quality. J. Environ. Manage., 66, 4, 377.

Torto, N., Mwatseteza, J., and Sawula, G. (2002) A Study of Microdialysis Sampling

of Metalions. Anal. Chim. Acta, 456, 2, 253.

Triebskorn, R., Adam, S., Casper, H., Honnen, W., Pawert, M., Schramm, M.,

Schwaiger, J., and Kohler, H.R. (2002) Biomarkers as Diagnostic Tools for

Evaluating Effects of Unknown Past Water Quality Conditions on Stream Organisms.

Ecotoxicology, 11, 6, 451.

Tyson, J.M. (2002) Perceptions of Sewage Sludge. Water Sci. Technol., 46, 4-5,

373.

Udawatta, R.P., Krstansky, J.J., Henderson, G.S., and Garrett, H.E. (2002)

Agroforestry Practices, Runoff, and Nutrient Loss: A Paired Watershed Comparison.

J. Environ. Qual., 31, 4, 1214.

Valls, S., and Vazquez, E. (2002) Leaching Properties of Stabilised/Solidified

Cement-Admixtures-Sewage Sludges Systems. Waste Manage., 22, 1, 37.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Van den Brink, P.J., Hartgers, E.M., Gylstra, R., Bransen, F., and Brock, T.C.M.

(2002) Effects of a Mixture of Two Insecticides in Freshwater Microcosms: II.

Responses of Plankton and Ecological Risk Assessment. Ecotoxicology, 11, 3, 181.

Vayssier-Taussat, M., Kreps, S.E., Adrie, C., Dall'Ava, J., Christiani, D., and Polla,

B.S. Mitochondrial Membrane Potential: A Novel Biomarker of Oxidative

Environmental Stress. Environ. Health Persp., 110, 3, 301.

Vellidis, G., Lowrance, R., Gay, P., and Wauchope, R.D. (2002) Herbicide Transport

in a Restored Riparian Forest Buffer System. T. ASAE. 45, 1, 89.

Viau, C. (2002) Biological Monitoring of Exposure to Mixtures. Toxicol. Lett., 134, 1-

3, 9.

Villar-Mir, J. M., Villar-Mir, P., Stockle, C.O., Ferrer, F., and Aran, M. (2002) On-Farm

Monitoring of Soil Nitrate-Nitrogen in Irrigated Cornfields in the Ebro Valley (Northern

Spain). Agron. J., 94, 2, 373.

Vinten, A.J.A., Lewis, D.R., Fenlon, D.R., Leach, K.A., Howard, R., Svoboda, I., and

Ogden, I. (2002) Fate of Escherichia Coli and Escherichia coli O157 in Soils and

Drainage Water Following Cattle Slurry Application at 3 Sites in southern Scotland

Soil Use Manage., 18, 3, 223.

Vogel, F., Smith, K.A.,Tester, J.W., and Peters, W.A. (2002) Engineering Kinetics for

Hydrothermal Oxidation of Hazardous Organic Substances. AICHE J., 48, 8, 1827.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Vogl, R.A., and Henry, R.N. (2002) Characteristics and Contaminants of the Salton

Sea Sediments. Hydrobiologia, 473, 1-3, 47.

Vuorenmaa, J., Rekolainen, S., Lepisto, A., Kenttamies, K., and Kauppila, P. (2002)

Losses of Nitrogen and Phosphorus from Agricultural and Forest Areas in Finland

During the 1980s and 1990s. Environ. Monit. Assess., 76, 2, 213.

Wang, H.Y. (2002) Assessment and Prediction of Overall Environmental Quality of

Zhuzhou City, Hunan Province, China. J. Environ. Manage., 66, 3, 329.

Weinert, T.L., Pan, W.L., Moneymaker, M.R., Santo, G.S., and Stevens, R.G. (2002)

Nitrogen Recycling by Nonleguminous Winter Cover Crops to Reduce Leaching in

Potato Rotations. Agron. J., 94, 2, 365.

White, D.C, Lytle, C.A, Gan, Y.D.M, Piceno, Y.M., Wimpee, M.H., Peacock, A.D.,

and Smith, C.A. (2002) Flash Detection/Identification of Pathogens, Bacterial Spores

and Bioterrorism Agent Biomarkers from Clinical and Environmental Matrices. J.

Microbiol. Meth., 48, 2-3, 139.

Whiteley, C.G., Heron, P., Pletschke, B., Rose, P.D., Tshivhunge, S., Van Jaarsveld,

F.P., and Whittington-Jones, K. (2002) The Enzymology of Sludge Solubilisation

Utilising Sulphate Reducing Systems - Properties of Proteases and Phosphatases.

Enzyme Microb. Tech., 31, 4, 419.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Woli, K.P., Nagumo T., and Hatano R. (2002) Evaluating Impact of Land Use and N

Budgets on Stream Water Quality in Hokkaido, Japan. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys., 63,

2-3, 175.

Wood, B.P., Gumbs, F., and Headley, J.V. (2002a) Distribution and Occurrence of

Atrazine, Deethylatrazine, and Ametryne Residues in Groundwater of the Tropical

Island Barbados. Commun. Soil Sci. Plan., 33, 15-18, 3501.

Wood, M., Issa, S., Albuquerque, M., and Johnson, A.C. (2002b) Spatial variability in

Herbicide Degradation in the Subsurface Environment of a Groundwater Protection

Zone. Pest. Manage. Sci., 58, 1, 3.

Worrall, F., Besien, T., and Kolpin, D.W. (2002) Groundwater Vulnerability:

Interactions of Chemical and Site Properties. Sci. Total Environ., 299, 1-3, 131.

Wu, J.T., and Kow, L.T. (2002) Applicability of a Generic Index for Diatom

Assemblages to Monitor Pollution in the Tropical River Tsanwun, Taiwan. J. Appl.

Phycol., 14, 1, 63.

Yankful, E.K., and Catalan, L.J.J. (2002) Predicted and Field-measured

Resuspension of Flooded Mine Tailings. J. Environ. Eng. ASCE, 128, 4, 341.

Yen, P. S., Chen, L.C., Chien, C.Y., Wu, R.M., and Lee, D.J. (2002) Network

Strength and Dewaterability of Flocculated Activated Sludge. Water Res., 36, 3, 539.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Zakkour, P.D., Gaterell, M.R., Griffin, P., Gochin, R.J., and Lester, J.N. (2002)

Developing a Sustainable Energy Strategy for a Water Utility. Part I: A Review of the

UK Legislative Framework. J. Environ. Manage., 66, 2, 105.

Zaman, M., Di, H.J., Sakamoto, K., Goto, S., Hayasi, H., and Inubushi, K. (2002)

Effects of Sewage Sludge Compost and Chemical Fertilizer Application on Microbial

Biomass and N Mineralization Rates. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 48, 2, 195.

Zhang, F., Yamasaki, S., and Nanzyo, M. (2002a) Waste Ashes for Use in

Agricultural Production: I. Liming Effect, Contents of Plant Nutrients and Chemical

Characteristics of Some Metals. Sci. Total. Environ., 284, 1-3, 215.

Zhang, F., Yamasaki, S., and Nanzyo, M. (2002b) Waste Ashes for Use in

Agricultural Production: II. Contents of Minor and Trace Metals. Sci. Total. Environ.,

286, 1-3, 111.

Zinjarde, S.S., and Pant, A.A. (2002) Hydrocarbon Degraders from Tropical Marine

Environments. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 44, 2, 118.

Zorpas, A.A., Vassilis, I., Loizidou, M., and Grigoropoulou, H. (2002) Particle Size

Effects on Uptake of Heavy Metals from Sewage Sludge Compost Using Natural

Zeolite Clinoptilolite. J. Colloid Interf. Sci., 250, 1, 1.

Water Environment Research, 01/2003; 104: 1581-1684

Zurek, R., Starzecka, A., and Bucka, H. (2002) Upper Vistula River: Response of

Aquatic Communities to Pollution and Impoundment. XI. Research Synthesis. P. J.

Ecol., 50, 2, 249.