Allan Houser RememberedNative Artists in ChinaCuzco School Painting in PeruArt Therapy in Indian Country
Da-ka-xeen MehnerCarla HemlockRadmilla Cody
Ben Aleck
FırstAmericanArt MAGAZINE
Ar t of Indigenous Peoples of the Americas
Spring 2014
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The Cuzco SchoolAndean Visions in Oils and Gold
By America MeredithLAMBOYANT, PARROT-WINGED, GUN-WIELDING
ANGELS. The Christ Child wearing full Inca regalia and Andean sandals. Dazzling mannerist and baroque paintings, with lavishly detailed brocateado, gold leaf overlay. These are hallmarks of the Cuzco School, an art movement founded in Peru in the 16th century. In colonial Peru and surrounding countries, Quechua, Aymara, and other Indigenous and Mestizo artists created meticulous oil paintings with gold leafing, illustrating Christian themes with a uniquely Andean twist.
The Cuzco School, or Escuela Cusqueña in Spanish, is a “loose term,” as art scholar Annick Benavides explains. It can refer specifically to the colonial artwork produced by guilds in Cuzco or more broadly to works in that style from Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador up to the present.
Currently residing in Lima, Annick Benavides grew up in both Peru and the United States. She is a doctoral candidate, having earned her Masters of Arts degree from University of New Mexico, and her passion is colonial Peruvian visual culture. Benavides generously shared her insights about the Cuzco School with First American Art Magazine.
“What sparked my personal interest in Cuzco School art is that I’d seen a lot of it living here—in my grandparents’ house and museum field trips, yet it was completely excluded from the traditional art historical canon when I went to college,” says Benavides.
“I was fascinated by that exclusion
and wanted to contribute to widening the field of knowledge about colonial Peruvian art in America and also in Peru. Seeing so much of it in my youth definitely got me involved.”
An Ancient Society
Peru is one of the world’s few cradles of civilization; that is to say, the earliest Peruvians independently invented agriculture, cities, and government. Spanning the Pacific desert, the crests of the Andes Mountains, to the deep jungles of the Amazon basin, Peru’s topography is as diverse as its peoples. Different cultures flourished through the centuries. Quechua-speaking Incas built their empire, or Tawantinsuyu, beginning in 1438. At its height, the Inca Empire spanned 2,500 miles, from the southern tip of present-day Colombia down to northern Argentina. The largest empire of the pre-columbian Americas was overrun in 1532 by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro and his men, aided by smallpox and other infectious diseases.
“Cuzco was such an ethnically diverse city when the Spanish arrived,” says Benavides. Quechua, the language of the Incas, is the most common, but she continues, “The ethnic range of Peru is fascinating. There are over 150 Native languages.”
In 1542 Spain established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which encompassed most of South America except the Guianas and eastern Brazil. The Viceroyalty lasted until 1824, when wars of independence freed the country from Spain’s dominion. While the Spanish were a colonial power
in South America, they wanted to reshape the Native cultures in their image, which included converting Indigenous peoples to Christianity. Visual arts, particularly painting and sculpture, were tools in this mass conversion; however, Andean peoples had their own persistent beliefs upon which the Inca Empire had already imposed its state religion.
What Muscogee Creek scholar Carter Blue Clark wrote holds true in Peru as well as the rest of the Americas: “Introduced as a foreign system of belief and behavior, native Christianity developed from the intersection of different traditions. Indians incorporated Christianity into their lifeway through their unique culture histories, often in ways missionaries did not predict or intend.”1
The syncretism, or blending of belief systems, is so complete that University of Florida professor and art historian Maya Stanfield-Mazzi writes, “It is nearly impossible to isolate any purely non-Christian Andean beliefs, just as it is difficult to find Christian practices not informed by the Andean tradition. To use an Andean metaphor, the two traditions have been interwoven into a rich cultural fabric.”2
Imported Styles: Mannerism and BaroqueIn their quest to convert the Andeans, Spanish colonizers used art as a tool. Initially, they imported religious artworks from Europe, but Jesuits also asked Rome to send artists to the Americas to share their techniques with
F
1. C. Blue Clark, “Native Christianity Since 1800,” in Handbook of North American Indians, V. 14, Southeast, eds. Raymond Fogelson and William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004), 742.
2. Maya Stanfield-Mazzi, Object and Apparition: Envisioning the Christian Divine in the Colonial Andes (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2013), 177.3. Tom Cummins, “A Tale of Two Cities: Cuzco, Lima, and the Construction of Colonial Representation,” in Converging Cultures: Art & Identity in Spanish America, ed.
Diana Fane (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996), 164.
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Native peoples. One of the first artists to arrive was the accomplished Italian mannerist painter, Bernardo Bitti, who arrived in Lima in 1575,3 and Juan Íñigo Loyola, a Basque artist from Spain.
The mannerist movement emerged in opposition to the High Renaissance in the 16th century. Less interested in naturalism, that is, realistic depictions, the mannerists exulted in intricate and elaborate details that showcased their artistic skill. Portraits were often elongated. Artists flattened backgrounds and imbued their uncanny compositions with dynamic tension.4 Tenebrism, the
extreme value shift between light and dark with a mostly dark background, was a hallmark of this art movement.
Baroque art followed mannerism. Andean artists made both these European art styles “their own,” says Benavides. “It’s fascinating how quickly they understood the language enough to adapt it and make it locally significant.”
Art Guilds and the Schism of 1688
The Europeans established workshops of artists of Native, Mestizo, and Criollo (Spanish people born in the Americas)
descent. Peru was flooded with imported prints and books, providing imagery for new works. Although art historians can often identify specific prints that inspired particular paintings, every Cuzco painting was unique in its interpretation of the material and embellishment of details. Since Spanish art was heavily influenced by Italian and Northern Flemish art, styles from all three regions manifested in the Andes.
Bishop of Cuzco Manuel de Mollinedo y Angula (1640–1699) brought his personal art collection with him and became an avid patron of Cuzco School art. On May 31, 1650, a devastating earthquake rocked Cuzco, so Mollinedo commissioned new, locally made artworks to adorn the city and fill the churches.5
Mollinedo particularly promoted Indigenous artists, such as Diego Quispe Tito, Basilio de Santa Cruz, Antonio Sinchi Roca, Marcos Rivera, and others. At this point in the 17th century, Native, Spanish, and Mestizo artists of Cuzco belonged to the same guild; however, in 1688 growing tensions and jealousies boiled over. The Spanish and Mestizo artists built a triumphal arch for the Feast of Corpus Christi without including the Indians. They then filed a complaint insulting the character of the Indian artists. The Indians responded to these affronts by dropping out of the guild to establish their own. By founding their own prolific and successful guild, the Indian artists of Cuzco were free to develop their own distinct styles.
“Many Cuzco School procedures were divvied out to different artists,” as Benavides describes the process of the guild workshops. “When we look at a Cuzco School painting, it probably has gone through five or six artists at least.”
“Gold leafing was a profession in itself,” states Benavides. “It did have actual gold in the leafing—part of all the copious amounts of gold being mined out of Peru. The gold leafing plays with the depth in a painting. It will have some sort of perspectival attempts, and then the gold
4. Ross Finocchio, “Mannerism: Bronzino (1503–1572) and his Contemporaries,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. 2013. Web.5. Maya Stanfield-Mazzi, Object and Apparition: Envisioning the Christian Divine in the Colonial Andes (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2013), 146.
Unknown Bolivian artist, Virgen de Pomata y Rosario, ca. 1850, oil on canvas. Image courtesy of Peyton Wright Gallery.
Donors who commissioned paintings were often painting towards the bottom, such as the woman in the lower middle. The suri plumes in the Virgin’s crown represent red for charity, green for hope, and white for faith.
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leafing alongside the halos or on the dresses of religious figures will bring the canvas to the foreground. Some of my professors have said it’s almost like abstract painting before abstraction became a genre. It plays with material and perspective in art in ways that just weren’t happening in other places.”
Oil paintings were painted on canvas, wood, and later copper plates. Some of the frames of Cuzco School painting feature a pre-columbian technique known as mopa mopa. Also called barniz de pasto, mopa mopa uses a tree, Elaeagia pastoensis, that grows in the jungles of Putumayo. Its resin is processed into thin sheets, dyed vivid colors, cut into shapes, and inlaid into wood.
Evolving Regional Schools“Cuzco might have had three or four guilds over time. As the colonial era evolved, their stylistic tendencies evolved as well. It wasn’t a stagnant school by any means,” explains Benavides. The new painting style developed by Cuzco’s guilds “became the
most popular type of painting.” She continues, “Many artists in Bolivia and Ecuador emulated the style, so that might be why we tend to call all of this art ‘Cuzco School,’ because they do look similar—the same characters, the same gold leafing, the unique perspectival traits.” She explains, “Once the different viceroyalties were established, we can trace the development of each of the schools. Art historians have begun to do that.”
“The Quito School, which was best known for their sculptures,” says Benavides, “had amazing carpenters. Their carvings were imported into Peru. The paintings went north to Ecuador, and the sculptures came into Lima from Quito.”
The carved and painted wooden sculptures representing Jesus, Mary, and the saints were dressed and adorned with gold and jewels. Typically hidden behind curtains, on special occasions the statues were revealed to the congregations, illuminated by candles, surrounded by flowers and ornate feathers, and even carried outside in public processions. Miracles, such as stopping earthquakes, calming storms, and healing the sick, were attributed to the statues, and the churches that housed them became destinations for pilgrimages.
“Artists recreated images of the statues of the Virgin and sent these paintings all across South America.” Benavides clarifies, “So when we look at them now, we see them as representations of the Virgin, but they are in fact representations of statues of the Virgin.”
The statues inspired two major genres of painting identified by art historian Maya Stanfield-Mazzi: miracle paintings, or ex-votos, and statue paintings. Miracle paintings commemorated miracles performed via the statues or were commissioned by a devotee “publicly thanking the divinity after the miraculous event and fulfilling his or her vow to express gratitude. The relationship also drew on an Andean formula of reciprocity between deity and worshiper.”6 Statue paintings allowed the essence of the religious statues into homes, schools, and other collections. Art historians observe that precontact Andean art from the Lake Titicaca region depicts divine beings in two dimensions, while mortals are rendered in three dimensions, so transferring religious imagery to the flat canvas may have emphasized their other-worldly powers.7
Cuzco, located in a high Andean mountain valley at 11,000 feet, was the capital of the Inca Empire. Even today, the precontact Quechua foundations of many public buildings are visible, with Spanish construction added. “The center of Cuzco presented a space for a simultaneous aesthetic experience of past and present that bordered on an entirely new experience: it was neither European nor Andean, but new and colonial,” writes Thomas B. F. Cummins, Professor of Pre-Columbian and Colonial Art History at Dumbarton Oaks.8
Annick Benavides visiting a chapel in Rapaz, Peru, located in the Oyón Valley of Peru, 2012.
6. Maya Stanfield-Mazzi, Object and Apparition: Envisioning the Christian Divine in the Colonial Andes (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2013), 119.7. Ibid. 1398. Tom Cummins, “A Tale of Two Cities: Cuzco, Lima, and the Construction of Colonial Representation,” in Converging Cultures: Art & Identity in Spanish America, ed.
Diana Fane (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996), 168.
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Regional art centers developed throughout the Andes, including Lima and Pomata in Peru, as well as Potosí and La Paz in Bolivia. Each of these had miraculous statues that inspired works, such as the Virgin of Copacabana, located on the Bolivian shores of Lake Titicaca. The Cathedral of Cuzco boasted Our Lady of Belén (Bethlehem) and Christ of the Earthquakes, who calmed the earthquake of 1650. Christ of the Earthquakes became a symbol of the city’s Indigenous identity, and over 70 paintings of that statue survive today.
Subject Matter and ArtistsBesides paintings of celebrated statues, religious processions were popular subjects in Cuzco School art. The crowds included Indigenous, Spanish, and African participants in contemporary dress. Mary as a Shepherdess and the Child Mary Spinning were understandably popular themes, considering the longstanding importance of textiles and herding llamas and alpacas to Andean peoples. Pairs of animals boarding Noah’s ark included turkeys, condors, and armadillos.
Portraits of all the Inca monarchs became popular in Cuzco, and Inca armed resistance against the Spanish continued in the 18th century, most famously in Túpac Amaru II’s uprising in 1780.
“It’s really difficult to determine via the style or iconographic references if the painter was Indigenous or Spanish,” admits Benavides. “I do use a general rule. This scholar Carolyn Dean writes about it: unsigned paintings were probably painted by undocumented, Indigenous and Mestizo artists. Only the famous artists would have signed their works, like Diego Quispe Tito signs his works, but he was an Indigenous painter.”
“Basilio Santa Cruz is one of the best known painters of the Cuzco School and was highly lauded by art historians and, not coincidentally, believed to have been a Spanish painter,” Benavides explains. “His art has references to European prints and also appears to reference actual
paintings in Spain, but historian Jorge Cornejo Bouroncle discovered contracts commissioning paintings from him which reveal that his full name was Basilio de Santa Cruz Pumacallao. ‘Pumacallao’ is a distinctly Quechua last name, which confirms he was at least Mestizo and probably Indian.”
Another celebrated Indigenous painter of the 17th century was Diego Quispe Tito (1611–1681). The Quechua artist descended from Inca nobility and signed his works with “Inga.” He lived in San Sebastián, on the outskirts of Cuzco and is best known for his Signs of the Zodiac, a series of paintings that still hang in the
9. Maya Stanfield-Mazzi, Object and Apparition: Envisioning the Christian Divine in the Colonial Andes (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2013), 172. 10. Ibid.174.
Basilio de Santa Cruz Pumacallao (Quechua), Immaculate Virgin Victorious over the Serpent of Heresy, (ca. 1670–ca. 1690), oil on canvas, 69 x 50.39 in. Museo de Arte de Lima.
Here the Virgin Mary embodies the “New Eve.” Her triple crown references the Trinity. The cherub’s whip bears the name, “John Duns Scotus,” a 13th-century Scottish philosopher and saint, who defended the concept of the Immaculate Conception, the idea that Mary was born without Original Sin. The dragon, representing heresy, grasps keys with the names of Pope Alexander VII, Philip IV, and the Franciscan Order, all of whom supported the veneration of Mary. The apples at the bottom, bearing the initials “A” and “E,” referencing the fruit eaten by Adam and Eve in Eden.
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Cuzco Cathedral.
While most Cuzco School artists never signed their paintings and are lost to history, some other prominent Quechua Cuzco School painters include Antonio Sinchi Roca in the 17th century and the 18th-century master Marcos Zapata. In Bolivia, Mestizo artist Leonardo Flores established the La Paz School in the 16th century. Melchor Pérez Holguín (ca. 1660–1724), a Mestizo born in Cochabamba, became the most celebrated artist of the Potosí School.
Spaniards and Criollos initially commissioned the paintings, but Indians began collecting Cuzco School works on the secondary market. For example, records show that Juan Auca, an Andean Native, purchased a nine-foot-tall painting in 1690 from a Spaniard’s estate.9 While women did not paint in the early Cuzco School, they did collect, and Maya Stanfield-Mazzi writes, “Laywomen distinguished themselves within colonial society as pious art collectors.”10 In time Native people did commission paintings which included their portraits as donors. The Brooklyn Museum owns 18th-century Bolivian paintings featuring their Aymara donors.
Andean Influences“Andean Christian images…,” writes Carolyn Dean, Art History Professor at the University of California, Santa Cruz, “became so popular precisely because both Europeans and Andeans could simultaneously invest them with different, sometimes even contradictory meanings.”11
The syncretic blending of European Christian and Andean iconographies is one of the most fascinating aspects of Cuzco School artwork. As Benavides points out, “We’ll find that they used symbolic flowers, like the ñucchu, a red flower used in Virgin paintings, traditionally used for fertility rites in the Andes.”
In high Andes, a region of such dramatic landscapes, the Cuzco artists chose to copy landscapes from imported European prints and paintings. Benavides has an intriguing theory as to why: “My argument is that the landscape—sacred hills, forests, caves—were so religiously important to the Native population, that they weren’t reproduced in paintings, possibly because they didn’t want to defile their sacredness or because Spanish artists didn’t want to reproduce a sacred iconography and continue these Native religious practices. You’ll see these Flemish landscapes reproduced over and over again instead of an Andean mountain or valley.”
“The connection with the Mount Potosí, where the Virgin’s face is implanted in the mountain, and her hands come out of it—there is an obvious attempt to correlate the sacred mountain with the Virgin,” states Benavides. “I think it’s actually more complicated than a correlation between this goddess called
ABOVE: Unknown Peruvian artist, Angel in Blue and Gold Brocade, ca. 1950, oil on canvas. Image courtesy of Peyton Wright Gallery. This “neo-Cuzco” painting features an ángel arcabucero.
Marcos Zapata (Quechua), detail of La Última Cena (The Last Supper), 1753, oil on canvas, Cathedral of Santo Domingo, Cuzco, Peru. In Zapata’s rendering of the last supper, Jesus and the apostles dine on viscacha and chicha, or corn beer. Avocados are included in the baskets of fruits.
Marcos Zapata, also known as Marcos Sapaca Inca, is considered to be one of the most important 18th-century painters in Peru. He was born around 1710 and died in 1773. Over his career, he painted over 200 works with the assistance of his apprentices who included Ignacio Chacón, Cipriano Gutiérrez, and Antonio Vilca. During his lifetime his paintings traveled as far as Argentina and Santiago, Chile.
11. Carolyn Dean, “The Renewal of Old World Images and the Creation of Colonial Peruvian Visual Culture,” in Converging Cultures: Art & Identity in Spanish America, ed. Diana Fane (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996), 178.
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Pachamama and the Virgin. Many of the Virgin paintings are trying to connect different fertility rites and gods with the Virgin. I think Pachamama is a simplistic idea we have of prehispanic worship, but in reality they had different deities that were related to corn or the river’s flow during the spring. A lot of the signs in these Virgin paintings reference different gods. For instance, the Virgin standing on a crescent moon which in the European iconography often means that she is the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception or the Virgin that conquers the Islamic religion, but in Peru, you could read it as the Virgin who is connected to the Goddess of the Moon, which is Qilla…. In short, the Virgin paintings are definitely related to prehispanic fertility rites, but we have to look at them in different ways than just Pachamama.”
The Virgin and the Christ Child are often adorned with brilliantly-colored feathers, most likely from the small Andean ostrich Rhea pennata, call a suri. Parasols, originally used by Inca nobility, were made from suri feathers. Native birds, in general, are abundant in Cuzco paintings.
Ángeles arcabuceros, the angels with muzzle-loading guns, “are a well-known iconography of the Cuzco School, because of their uniqueness,” explains Benavides. “We don’t find angels being painted like that in Mexico or Spain. Art historians believe that they are a commemoration of a religious syncretism earlier on in the conquest. When Spanish conquistadors were firing off their rifles, the Indigenous peoples were said to have thought that they were harnessing their lightning god called Illapa. That fusion of the power of rifles and the power of this Indigenous thunder and lightning god may contribute to the popularity of this iconography. It’s an angel but also this historic remembrance of this prehispanic thunder and lightning god.”
The quintessential Cuzco School painting is Marcos Zapata’s 1753 The Last Supper. Jesus and His disciples are gathered around an Andean feast.
“I was in the Cuzco Cathedral a year
ago,” says Benavides, “and the tour guide told me, ‘This isn’t a guinea pig.’ He called it a viscacha [genus Lagidium], of the rodent family, like the chinchilla. It’s an attempt to paint the Last Supper in a way that would have been familiar to people of the Andes. The tour guide told me they were drinking chicha instead of wine. Chicha is also purple or red; it’s fermented corn beer. It’s fun to think of the disciples and Jesus drinking this typical Andean alcoholic beverage, instead of wine.”
Changing AttitudesDuring the colonial era, “The paintings were commemorations of the culture and held monetary value and prestige,” says Benavides; however, after achieving independence, Peruvians began to see Cuzco School artwork, as “bad copies of European paintings.” She goes on to explain: “A lot of colonial paintings were painted over in the new European style that was fashionable at the time of the late 18th and 19th centuries.”
Ignacio Chacón, Madonna and Child with Bird, ca. 1765, oil and gold on canvas, Denver Art Museum, Spanish Colonial Art collection, 1972.390
Ignacio Chacón apprenticed to master artist Marcos Zapata. More of Chacón’s works are at the monastery of the Cathedral of Santo Domingo in Cuzco. Frames of flowers denote the spiritual realm, and brightly colored Andean birds are characteristic of the Cuzco School.
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Nonetheless, Benavides says, “A lot of private colonial collections have survived in families. I know it’s gone through waves were they would put them in the front and then take them to the back.”
Stratton-Pruitt writes, “Out of favor and politically incorrect, the art has suffered the indignities of time, environmental exposure, and limited conservation budgets. Theft and surreptitious sales have become common.”
Since the 1970s when artwork in Peruvian churches was inventoried, fully 40 percent of the paintings have been stolen. Seven paintings recording miracles of the Virgin of Pomata were stolen from the church of Santiago in Pomata in the 1990s.12 In 2010 the FBI Art Crime Team tracked down and returned two 18th-century paintings stolen from Peru.13 The UNESCO Convention for controlling the flow of antiquities now requires buyers and dealers to have proper
paperwork to export historical works out of Peru.
“There are wonderful curators and historians that specialize in colonial painting in Peru,” says Benavides, who are turning the tide of public opinion. Art historians are uncovering new information about Cuzco School art by examining primary documents in Peru and throughout South America.
“It took a while for academics to recognize its complexity,” says Benavides. Due to the increasing attention from international art historians, she explains, “Peruvians are appreciating the art more. It’s selling for more at auctions. It’s on the upswing. The more we get children exposed to it with curriculum at schools and museum education, the better. It is fighting some of the same stigmas that folk art has in the United States—that’s it’s produced by unlearned artists—when that’s totally not the case. The art is beautiful and complex.”
“I worked in education. I worked at the Museo Pedro [de Osma] for one year in Lima. My aim was to expose students to the different cultures you can find within one painting. At first glance they appear to be these dark religious paintings, but if you look for local signs and syncretic religious meanings in them, the students become fascinated very quickly. I hope that work can continue and we can continue the upswing.”
“Neo-Cuzco School” Paintings TodayCollectors can find contemporary works in the Cuzco School-style in Peru at modest prices. “In Peru, there’s a bunch of painters you can find at the Indian markets … basically tourist markets,” says Benavides. “If you ask to see a lot of what they have in general, and they show you four of the exact same angel with different colored clothing, that’s a good indicator that they are producing copies from a design underneath. But if they are all pretty varied and the gold leafing is distinct on each one, one of those pieces would be a good purchase and a sound
Attributed to the School of Diego Quispe Tito (Quechua), La Virgen Inmaculada, ca. 1650, oil and gold on canvas, Cuzco, Peru. Image courtesy of Peyton Wright Gallery.
12. Stanfield-Mazzi, Object and Apparition: Envisioning the Christian Divine in the Colonial Andes (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2013), 122.13. “Restoring Cultural Heritage 18th-Century Paintings Returned to Peru,” FBI, April 8 2010, web.
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investment to make.”
“A couple workshops in Cuzco try to emulate the style of a colonial workshop,” says Benavides. “They’ll divide up the work. They’ll have a specialist in frames, a specialist in angel faces, a specialist in clothing, so when you buy one of their works, it emulates the style and process of colonial workshops and painting.”
Benavides recommends the work of the Chávez Galdós Family. “That family is renowned; they have had international exhibitions of their Cuzco School-style paintings. They paint as a family. There are eight brothers and sisters, who collaborate. They’re a really cool example of contemporary Cuzco-style work.”
Art scholars such as Anna Benavides are striving to educate the public about the historic artwork of the Cuzco School. Living Peruvian artists are continuing the meticulous painting tradition. With increased recognition, the Cuzco School will finally get its due respect as a unique cross-cultural phenomenon.
Places to See the ArtBrooklyn Museum, NY www.brooklynmuseum.org
Cathedral of Santo Domingo, Cuzco, Peru
Denver Art Museum, CO www.denverartmuseum.org
Inca Museum (Museo Inka) corner Ataúd y Córdova del Tucumán s/n, Cuzco, Peru
Lima Art Museum, Lima, Peru www.mali.pe
Peyton Wright Gallery 237 E. Palace Ave., Santa Fe, NM www.peytonwright.com
Neo-Cuzco School art:Chávez Galdós Family www.pinturasdelcusco.com
Clorinda Chávez Galdós www.clorysart.com
Works CitedBenavides, Annick. Personal interview. December 19, 2013.Clark, C. Blue. “Native Christianity Since 1800.” In Handbook of North American Indians, V. 14, Southeast, edited by Raymond Fogelson and William C. Sturtevant, 742-752. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. Cummins, Tom. “A Tale of Two Cities: Cuzco, Lima, and the Construction of Colonial Representation.” In Converging Cultures: Art & Identity in Spanish America edited by Diana Fane, 157–170. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996. Dean, Carolyn. “The Renewal of Old World Images and the Creation of Colonial Peruvian Visual Culture.” In Converging Cultures: Art & Identity in Spanish America,
edited by Diana Fane, 151–182. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996. Finocchio, Ross. “Mannerism: Bronzino (1503–1572) and his Contemporaries.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. 2013. Web.“Restoring Cultural Heritage 18th-Century Paintings Returned to Peru.” FBI. April 8 2010. Web.Stanfield-Mazzi, Maya. Object and Apparition: Envisioning the Christian Divine in the Colonial Andes. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2013.Stratton-Pruitt, Suzanne. “Painting in South America, Conquest to Independence: An Overview.” In The Virgins, Saints, and Angels: South American Paintings 1600–1825 from the Thomas Collection, edited by Suzanne Stratton-Pruitt, 81–94. Milan, Italy: Skira, 2006.
Unknown Cuzco School artist, The Return of the Holy Family to Nazareth, ca. 1700, oil on canvas, 76 x 53.75 in. Image courtesy of Peyton Wright Gallery.
