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Academic writing- Final Assignment

Contents Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................... 2

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 3

I. Overview of task-based learning .......................................................................... 3

1. Historical background ....................................................................................... 3

2. The definition ...................................................................................................... 3

II. Arguments .............................................................................................................. 4

1. Task-based learning increases motivation among learners ........................... 4

2. Task-based learning enhances spontaneous interaction ................................. 5

3. Task-based learning increases exposure to the language ............................... 6

III. Some concerns about task-based learning ....................................................... 7

1. Task-based learning is unsuitable for low-level learners ............................... 7

2. Task-based learning lacks sufficient focus on form ........................................ 8

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 9

References ...................................................................................................................... 9

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Acknowledgement

Heartfelt thanks would like to go to all the people without whose

encouragement, cooperation, support and contribution, it would be really hard for this

assignment to be fulfilled.

First and foremost, I would love to say sincere thanks to Faculty of Post-Graduate

Studies, Hanoi University for offering me a wonderful opportunity to learn and

research with respectable teachers, various documents and good facilities.

Secondly, I desire to send my deepest thanks to our admirable supervisor, Dr. Dinh

Thi Bao Huong, who taught me, inspired me and challenged me for her careful

guidance and advice through my time.

Thirdly, words cannot express enough my gratitude to my beloved family, my friends

and my relatives for their enthusiasm and encouragement. Without their

supportiveness, I strongly believe, my work would not have finished.

Last but not least, I would like to show appreciation to my readers for their interest

and criticism on my paper.

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Academic writing- Final Assignment

Introduction

In recent years, English has become the international communicative language used

widely all over the world. Therefore, teaching and learning it have drawn attention

from everyone at every age and level. A variety of methods were born as the aids to

help people learn it better so that they can use it proficiently. Some traditional ones

include grammar translation method and audio-lingual method. Total physical

response, Silent Way and Neuro-linguistic Programming are to name some alternative

methods. One method belonging to current communicative approach called “Task-

based learning” seem to be the concerned-about recent one where learning and

teaching processes are conducted wholly through communicative tasks. Focusing

mainly on meaning and language use after the tasks completed as an assistance for

language acquisition, therefore, task-based language learning has proved to be an

effective way for language acquisition. Hence, it should be applied more widely in

language learning and teaching. In this essay, the overview of task-based learning, the

reasons for its effectiveness and some concerns related will be clearly presented.

I. Overview of task-based learning

1. Historical background

In the 1970s, communicative language teaching approach became more and more

common among the world of second language acquisition scholars and teachers. In the

1980s, the term “task” gradually substituted “communicative activity” and as a result,

task-based language learning turned to be the updated teaching method widely utilized

in the language classrooms.

2. The definition

There are various definitions of “task”.

Bygate, Skehan, and Swain (2001) define a task as “an activity which requires

learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an objective” (p. 11).

Agreeing with that, the definition by Shehadeh (2005) says a task is an activity that is

goal-oriented, content-focused; has a real outcome and reflects real-life language use

and language need and Ganta (2015) points out that tasks aim at “meaning-focused

language use” so they give the participants the chance to be “language users” rather

than “language learners” (p. 2716). According to Nunan (2004), a task is “a piece of

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classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or

interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their

grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning, and in which the intention is to

convey meaning rather than to manipulate form.” (p. 4). Therefore, task-based

learning pays attention to “communication and conveying message” (Ganta, 2015, p.

2760). In the other words, learners may use the language with speed and confidence

although sometimes they have to sacrifice grammatical accuracy (Willis & Willis,

2009).

To sum up, from my perspective, tasks let learners communicate in their own ways in

the second language to achieve some real-life goals.

II. Arguments

1. Task-based learning increases motivation among learners

The evidence supporting for this point is the result of a study carried out by Ruso

(1999) saying that task-based learning is “helpful in students’ motivation and learning.

It encouraged students’ practice opportunities of the target language receptivity in the

lessons as a result of presenting various tasks.” (pp. 13-14). Another research by

Akhtar, Khan & Kiran (2014) also argues that the tasks based learning cut down on

learners’ stress in classroom and at the same time their motivation increases while

they participate in simulations, role-play and other activities.

Indeed, task-based learning helps learners to be motivated in the class for three main

reasons. First of all, it brings them to the real-life world. It is proved that people tend

to take part in a task which has authenticity, personal meaning and relevance to their

work (Voke, 2002). In task-based learning, in each lesson, students are provided with

a task which is communicative and close to real life and the purpose of task is to

increase the learners’ time of working to “experiment spontaneously, individually and

originally with the foreign language” so the task will bring the learners with the “new

personal experience” with the second language (European Commission, 2009, pp. 3-

4). It also recalls the memories or experiences in the past for the learners (Richards &

Rodgers, 2001). In addition, Willis & Willis (2009), claiming “Leaners may engage

with a task simply because the topic is appealing.” (p. 4) give an example of a task to

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raise motivation among learners “Write a list and agree on the three most important

ingredients of a good party.” (Kay & Jones, 2000, p.62 as cited in Willis & Willis,

2009, p.4).

Secondly, task-based learning gives learners a chance to improve their performance.

In accordance with Ellis (2005, cited in Shehadeh & Coombe, 2010), in the cognitive

perspective, task-based learning gives the learners an opportunity to enhance 3 aspects

of performance including fluency which is the “capacity to communicate in real time”,

accuracy which is the “ability to use the target language according to its norms” and

complexity which is the “ability to use more elaborate and complex TL structures and

forms” (Skehan, 2003 as cited in Shehadeh & Coombe, 2010, p. 2). This definitely

enhances learners’ English skill and makes them feel more motivated in learning this

language.

Last but not least, learners create an opportunity to co-work with their mates in task-

based learning or show “partnership and collaboration” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.

229). Research studies state that group-work encourages leaners to be active in

learning and moreover, improve decision-making, critical thinking and

communication skills (Implementing group work in the classroom, n.d.). To be more

specific, Ganta (2015) indicates that in task-based learning, learners create a chance to

work and cooperate with others in groups so the relationships among them will be

established. It is this bond that encourages them to involve actively in learning

because they are really working with their peers as stated by Shehadeh & Coombe

(2010) that pair work or group work in task-based learning not only makes them

responsible in their work but also involves them more in the learning process.

Therefore, more often than not, learners’ motivation will be really enhanced when

task-based learning is conducted in classroom, which is regarded as “one of the

primary causes of success and failure in second language learning” (Richards &

Schmidt, 2002, p. 344).

2. Task-based learning enhances spontaneous interaction

When task-based learning is utilized in the classroom, students are allowed to use the

vocabulary and grammar they already have. For example, learners are asked to act as a

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receptionist in a five-star hotel talking with the guest when he/she mislaid his/her

luggage so they have to interact with each other to deal with the real situation. Thus, it

provides them with an opportunity to both use the language they already know and

pay attention to as well as learn from their friends’ language so it helps to gain gradual

confidence and eventually for them to interact spontaneously in terms of two main

perspectives.

First and foremost, it is the sociocultural perspective. To be more specific, when

learners do the tasks, the interactions will wake their cognitive processes including

cognitive and language development up; besides, the cooperative establishment of

knowledge in such tasks is of importance to the language learning (Shehadeh &

Coombe, 2010).

Secondly, input perspective cannot be overlooked in this case. Accordingly, through

interaction, learners stand a chance to get feedback suitable with their comprehension

level, thereby leading to the “negotiated modification of conversation” and then an

important factor of second language acquisition, “comprehensible input” (Shehadeh &

Coombe, 2010, p. 1). To be short, Shehadeh & Coombe (2010) conclude that tasks

facilitate students by letting them negotiate meaning, modify input and pay more

attention to the second language’s part. Therefore, they will probably strengthen the

ability to interact in an impromptu way.

3. Task-based learning increases exposure to the language

In the task-based learning, students are encouraged to communicate in English all the

times regardless of the accuracy so the more they do the tasks, the more they are

exposed to the language. As a result, the more exposure to the language, the more the

learners “acquire” it (Krashen, 1982 as cited in Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 36). It

means the exposure can result in learners’ better achievement in language. Lightbown

and Spada (2006) also indicate that when students collaborate with each other in the

task, they can gain and create a big amount of language and although errors may

occur, task-based learning presents learners with many more opportunities to speak

the aimed language. Therefore, through the task, the access to English is greater and

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greater, which eases the language acquisition because “language acquisition is a

matter of exposure” (Galliot, 2007, para. 1).

III. Some concerns about task-based learning

1. Task-based learning is unsuitable for low-level learners

In order to successfully conduct task-based learning in classroom, teachers may

question the appropriateness of tasks to the learners’ current level or the difficulty of

tasks which is “the cognitive load and clarity of the goal of the task, code complexity

and interpretive density of the language to be used ” (Candlin, 1987 as cited in

Tavakoli, 2009). Skehan (1998, cited in Tavakoli, 2009) gives the definition of task

difficulty in terms of code complexity including vocabulary load, redundancy and

density, communicative stress which comprises of time limits, time pressure, speed,

number of participants; cognitive complexity which consists of cognitive familiarity

comprising of familiarity of the topic, familiarity of the discourse genre and

familiarity of the task itself and cognitive processing with information clarity and

sufficiency of information given. More notably, Tavakoli (2009) argues that regarding

cognitive demand, both teachers and learners complained the difficulty they suffered

in understanding the task such as the story, the follow-up and realizing what was

going on in the story. Tavakoli (2009) also maintains that they found the task

challenging because task-based learning asks for “certain vocabulary and structures

that the learners did not know.” (p. 10). Besides, according to Tavakoli (2009), the

overload of information in a task is stated to enhance its difficulty. To support this

viewpoint, Ganta (2015) points out that low-level students who are not equipped with

linguistic knowledge will struggle to participate in a task. They may not understand

the demands of the task and “find it hard to make themselves understood while

taking part in the task” (p. 2767). Thus, eventually, demotivation or the loss of

confidence can be brought about.

Ellis (2006), however, argues that teachers can modify the task difficulty by using the

appropriate methodology and make sure that learners have the tactics to take part in

task-based learning. Sharing the same viewpoint, Griffey & Housner (2007) suggest

that if the task challenges learners too hard, teachers can reduce the task difficulty and

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vice versa to “do the task higher or lower, farther or closer, faster or closer, with a

longer or shorter implement, or with a larger or smaller ball or target.” (p. 45).

From my perspective, it is the teachers that determine how difficult the task is to carry

out task-based learning. After observing the class and well understanding the level of

students in terms of knowledge, skills or even conditions, teachers may design tasks

which are suitable for their students, find the materials to support the tasks, give

students useful language relevant to the tasks. Hence, the question of the difficulty of

tasks by the opponents is seemingly answered.

2. Task-based learning lacks sufficient focus on form

Due to the fact that during task-based learning, learners spend most of the time

communicating with each other to do the tasks and they may say what they want

without the interruption or immediate correction from teachers, many researchers raise

concerns about the existence of form or accuracy in learners’ long-term speaking skill.

Skehan (1996) suggests that if the learners excessively focus on meaning during the

task without noticing the forms, their strategic solutions will be restricted. Therefore,

task-based approach may not be reliable to “automatically drive inter-language

forward”, and it will be necessary "to think about the “methods of focusing on form

without losing the values of tasks as realistic communication motivators, and as

opportunities to trigger acquisitional processes" (Skehan, 1996, p. 42).

In fact, task-based learning “does not exclude a focus on form” but there is a

“marriage of meaning and form” to establish one of the main features of this kind of

instruction (Van den Branden, 2006, p. 9). However, if yes, there are potential

solutions to these concerns. There should be a harmonious combination between

meaning and form in the task. Specifically, teachers may provide students with some

necessary and important vocabulary and structures at the beginning so that they can

refer to during the task completion. After the task, as proposed by Willis (1996, cited

in Skehan, 2003), language focus and practice will be kept eyes on. More

interestingly, forms or grammatical items may be learnt or discovered from “its role in

meaningful communication” by the activities to catch attention and raise awareness

(Richards & Rodgers, 2014, p. 181). For example, students can learn present perfect

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through the task of talking about life experiences (what they have ever done or never

done).

Conclusion

Task-based learning has been the subject of widespread debate and controversy. This

essay has attempted to discuss the benefits and drawbacks of task-based learning.

Specifically, task-based learning plays a significant role in enhancing motivation,

interaction and exposure to the language whereas it is criticized due to the

unsuitability for the low-level learners and the deficiency of focus on form. I hold my

conviction that task-based learning is an effective tool to acquire the language because

of its aforementioned advantages. Despite some critiques, its potentials should not be

ignored and clearly more can be done to make task-based learning more efficient and

widely applied in the future.

References

Akhtar, N., Khan, T., & Kiran, S. (2014). The effectiveness of TBL in EFL learners’

performance in Pakistan. European Academic Research, 2(4), 4665-4677.

Ellis, R. (2006). The methodology of task-based teaching. The Asian EFL Journal

Quarterly, 8(3), 19-45.

European, C. (2009). Task-based Learning. Retrieved from www.languages.dk

Galliot, L. (2007). Language acquisition is a matter of exposure. Retrieved from New

York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/26/style/26iht-

alang.1.5454742.html

Ganta, T. G. (2015). The strengths and weaknesses of task-based learning (TBL).

Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies, 3(16), 2760-2771.

Griffey, D. C., & Housner, L. D. (2007). Designing effective instructional tasks for

physical education and sports. Illinois: Human Kinetics.

Implementing group work in the classroom. (n.d.). Retrieved from Center for

Teaching Excellence, University of Waterloo : https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-

teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-tips/alternatives-

lecturing/group-work/implementing-group-work-classroom

Ligthbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned (3rd ed.). Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

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Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language

teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language

teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J., & Schmidt, R. (2002). Longman dictionary of Language Teaching and

Applied Linguistics (3rd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

Ruso , N. (1999). The Influence of Task Based Learning on EFL Classrooms. Asian

EFL Journal, 1-23.

Shehadeh, A., & Coombe, C. (2010). Introduction: From Theory to Practice in Task-

based learning. In A. Shehadeh, & C. Coombe, Applications of Task-based

learning in TESOL (pp. 1-7). Virginia: Teaching English for speakers of other

languages.

Skehan, P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction.

Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 38-62.

Tavaloki, P. (2009). Investigating task difficulty: learners’ and teachers’ perceptions.

International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19(1), 1-25.

Van den Branden , K. (2006). Task-based language education: from theory to practice

. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Voke, H. (2002, February ). Motivating students to learn. Retrieved from ASCD :

http://www.ascd.org/publications/newsletters/policy-

priorities/feb02/num28/Motivating-Students-to-Learn.aspx

Willis, D., & Willis, E. (2009). Infinite possibilities: expanding limited opportunity in

language education . Paper presented at 8th Annual JALT Pan-SIG Conference

. Chiba, Japan: Tokyo Gakuen University.

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Annotated Bibliography

1. Akhtar, N., Khan, T., & Kiran, S. (2014). The Effectiveness of TBL in EFL

Learners’ Performance in Pakistan. European Academic Research, 2(4), 4665-

4677

The journal article investigated EFL learners’ and language teachers’ viewpoints

regarding the implementation of TBL in traditional language classrooms in Pakistan.

Using questionnaire as the instrument, the authors found that the implementation of

TBL approach in Pakistanis EFL classes could create the various activities. Moreover,

it makes their learning more effective as TBL tasks enhance student’s language

performance by stimulating students’ involvement. The researchers suggest that

FLL/SLL is strengthened only when learners are put into various tasks, given a

comfortable atmosphere, in which they create a chance to communicate with their

friends in a purposeful, meaningful context.

Although the setting of the research is not broad enough to generalize the results for

learners all over the world, I use the findings about motivation increase in class to

support my first argument.

2. Ellis, R. (2006). The methodology of task-based teaching. (P. Robertson, & J.

Jung, Eds.) The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly, 8(3), 19-45.

In the article, the author takes methodologies for teaching tasks into consideration. To

be more specific, how tasks specified in task-based learning can be applied into the

lessons. Ellis describes in detail three common principal phases, which are pre-task,

during-task and post-task, the reflection of a task-based lesson’s chronology. In each

stage, the purpose, the ways to implement, the suggested activities and sometimes the

comparison with the traditional methods are clearly presented with the illustrations

and figures. However, it cannot be overlooked that although it enriches my knowledge

about TBL, most parts don’t serve much for my writing except for one small part of

the task difficulty that supports my refutation for the first counter-argument.

3. Ganta, T. G. (2015). The strengths and weaknesses of task-based learning

(TBL). Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies, 3(16), 2760-

2771.

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In this writing, Ganta made efforts to clarify the factors contributing to task-based

learning’s revolution, one of which is the identification of the importance of group

work and pair work; the different types of tasks including structure-based production

tasks, comprehension tasks and consciousness-raising tasks and more importantly the

advantages and disadvantages of task-based learning. The author emphasized that

TBL helps learners interact spontaneously, enhance automaticity, gain more

vocabulary, have more language-learning conditions, reach the maximum of

communication and learn experientially. However, some disadvantages cannot be

overlooked. The difficulty of the task, the difference in the perceptions between

teachers and learners, the task authenticity and the diversity in classes are just to name

some. In fact, Ganta, in the conclusion, proposed the role of the teacher in class so that

TBL could be implemented more and more to uphold the strengths and restrict the

weaknesses. Many ideas in this paper were referred to give more literature to the

definitions of tasks, support the first argument and amazingly become the proponent

of the first counter-argument.

4. Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Chapter 1 of this book details the definition of task, exemplifies the usage of task,

points out the relationship between task and CLT, puts it in a broader curriculum

framework, indicates the pedagogical assumptions from the concept, the impacts of

the concept on the learner as well as policy and practice. In this chapter, I refer to the

definition of “task” which is both profound and broad enough.

5. Powers, D. (2008). Task-based instruction: from concepts to the classroom.

Retrieved from

http://www.hpu.edu/CHSS/English/TESOL/ProfessionalDevelopment/200880

TWPfall08/6_2_08Powers.pdf.

In this paper, Powers provided the readers with a definition of TBL, the language

theory behind TBI and its advantages and disadvantages. Besides, the author attached

a teaching lesson to exemplify the method. The activities are chosen based on

interviews with two Japanese people speaking English and their difficulty in using

post office. From my perspective, however, the work is not clearly presented and well-

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organized enough for me to follow the ideas because there are no headings, bullet

points and some necessary signal words to tell the parts apart. Therefore, it doesn’t

provide any important basis for my assignment.

6. Robinson, P. (2011). Task-based language learning: a review of issues.

Language Learning, 1(61), 1-36

In this article, Robinson summarizes a lot of issues related to tasks. First of all, he

points out the characteristics of tasks such as input, roles, setting, action, monitoring ,

outcomes and feedbacks and their application. Secondly, he questioned how to deliver

the instructions in tasks and referred to a variety of literature, which proved that he

worked really hard and thoroughly. Then, some frameworks and rationales in terms of

theories including procedural syllabus, interaction, output and cognition are presented.

Interestingly, Robinson included the process describing how speeches are produced

with conceptualization, lexical and grammatical encoding and articulation. Finally, he

provided readers with taxonomies of tasks features from Pica et all (1993), Skehan

(1998, 2001, 2003) and Robinson (2001, 2003). In this part, he clearly expresses his

critical opinion to each taxonomy. However, honestly, it just summarizes a lot, refers

a lot but doesn’t talk focused much about the benefits of TBL. Therefore, although it

gives me much background knowledge on the field, it doesn’t play an important role

in supporting my arguments.

7. Ruso , N. (1999). The Influence of Task Based Learning on EFL Classrooms.

Asian EFL Journal, 1-23.

This study was conducted to examine learners’ opinions about TBL. 55 students from

two English classrooms were participants in the study. Utilizing different data

collection methods including a questionnaire, diaries and semi-structured interviews,

the authors suggested that variety for the students is created by implementing TBL in

EFL classes. In addition, it enhances language performance. The participants

expressed the dislike of teacher-centered lessons where they have next to no

opportunities to perform in the target language.

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Treating this source the same to Akhtar’s and his colleagues’ study, I refer to their

finding of the learners’ motivation enhancement to support the first and foremost

point.

8. Willis, D., & Willis, J. (2007). Doing task-based teaching. Oxford : Oxford

University Press.

In my opinion, this is one of the well-written books about task-based learning and

teaching. It introduces some common views on TBL as well as misconceptions in

chapter 1, four practical sequences of meaning-focused activities resulting in focus on

form, the ways to design tasks in three next chapters, the distinction between form in

practical situations and that in isolated contexts in chapter 6, the relationship between

tasks in the classrooms with the everyday English in chapter 7, the discussion of

adapting and refining tasks in chapter 8, more notably, how to design a task-based

syllabi and combine it into the textbook seen in chapter 9 & 10. Therefore, without

any doubts, it seems to be a good choice for the teachers who want to use tasks in their

lessons because everything is presented step by step with the illustrations and

commentaries but I, to be honest, don’t use any basis in this book because they don’t

work in my writing.

9. Shehadeh, A., & Coombe, C. (2010). Introduction: From Theory to Practice in

Task-based learning. In A. Shehadeh, & C. Coombe, Applications of Task-

based learning in TESOL (pp. 1-7). Virginia: Teaching English for speakers of

other languages.

This first chapter of the book, from my perspective, has a different approach to TBL

from the other books because it analyses TBL from the different perspectives which

are input, output, cognitive, sociocultural, research-practice interface, student

autonomy and student-centered instruction perspective. Although sometimes

challenging for me to digest, the perspectives reveal the authors’ profound

understanding of the method from the rooted problems. I myself make a lot of

references from this chapter of the book to support my arguments about motivation

and interaction, specifically input perspective and sociocultural one.

10. Tavaloki, P. (2009). Investigating task difficulty: learners’ and teachers’

perceptions. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19(1), 1-25.

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This study was carried out to investigate learners’ and teachers’ perceptions of task

difficulty and dimensions for task difficulty. Ten SLL learners and Ten EFL/ESOL

teachers participated in this study to do four oral tasks. Then some interviews were

conducted. At the end, the author proposed that, despite some striking differences

between learners’ perceptions and those of teachers, the criteria for task difficulty

were the same. The findings also supported the cognitive approach to TLB, and

indicated which points of two task difficulty models show the teachers’ and learners’

perceptions. As it name suggests, in this study, some points about the difficulty of the

tasks were used to support the view that task-based learning is difficult for low-level

learners and counter-argue my points.

11. Van den Branden , K. (2006). Task-based language education: from theory to

practice . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter 1 of this edited book provides the readers with the detailed introduction of

task-based language teaching and the author indicated that much of the previous

research on TBL was carried out in the experiments not in the classrooms and he

would elucidate to the questions about the implementation of TBL in the classes.

Then, to find out the principles of TBL, Van den Branden thoroughly answered three

questions about a second language curriculum referring to much of the literature about

TBL. At the end of the chapter, the author wrote a review of the chapter and a preview

of what would happen in the next chapters.

In this chapter, I use one of the ideas about the inclusion of form in TBL, which

supports my refutation for the 2nd counter-argument.