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a b s t r a c t
This paper explores the nature of the variability noted in the Late Middle Paleolithic lithic technologyof the Eastern Cantabrian Region. The sequence at Axlor exemplifies this variability revealing impor-tant changes in technology from ca. 55e45 ka BP. A major shift from stable occupations with aLevallois-based technology to shorter occupations with a Quina-based technology is observed. Thecritical analysis of the available information for the Middle Paleolithic assemblages in the region re-veals six major phases: an Early Middle Paleolithic (170e100 ka BP), an undefined Middle Paleolithic(90e60 ka BP), a Vasconian (Discoid technology with cleavers e 60e50 ka BP), a Levallois Mousterian(55e50 ka BP), a Quina Mousterian (50e45 ka BP) and a Late Mousterian (45e40 ka BP). Although theLevallois and Quina Mousterian phases seem to be adaptations to the rapid environmental changeshappening during the first phases of MIS3 (between DO16e17 and DO12), there are other factors thatalso influenced the configuration of these different technological systems, such as the modification ofsettlement systems or changes in Neanderthal group organization, and the resulting transformation ofsocial needs.
Over the past several decades, the Late Middle Paleolithic (LMP)of the Cantabrian Region has been thoroughly studied from atechnological viewpoint, resulting in a significant increase in thenumber of synthetic approaches and the amount of informationderived from them (among others: Baena et al. 2012; Carri�on et al.2008; Cuartero et al. 2015; García Garriga et al. 2012; Maillo-Fern�andez, 2007; S�anchez-Fern�andez and Bernaldo de Quir�os,2008; Rios-Garaizar, 2008). One of the major features of thisperiod in this region is the high degree of variability observed insettlement strategies, raw material procurement, lithic tool pro-duction and use.
The variability in lithic production for the Eastern CantabrianRegion LMP was already discussed back in 2008 (Rios-Garaizar,2008), but this topic is far from exhausted. The advances thathave been made in the understanding of the regional Early MiddlePaleolithic (EMP) (e.g. �Alvarez-Alonso and Arrizabalaga, 2012;Rios-Garaizar et al. 2015a), the rebirth of old debates such asthat on the ‘Vasconian’ (Deschamps, 2014), and recently obtained
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izar, J., A new chronological al (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.
data (e.g. dates published in Higham et al. 2014) push us towards areassessment of the regional LMP. Unfortunately, we are stilllacking all the information necessary for a comprehensive syn-thesis. Important sites with key sequences, such Axlor or Arrillor,are still under study, and, at the same time, new sites are underexcavation, mostly open-air sites (Rios-Garaizar, 2014; Colongeet al. 2015). Also, only a few dates are available for the LMP,with Arrillor representing the only well-dated sequence (Highamet al. 2014). Finally, the analysis of faunal and lithic assemblageshas not been systematically approached and the available infor-mation is quite uneven.
In a broader perspective, the notion of variability in the MiddlePaleolithic and its significance is a question that is still under dis-cussion (Kuhn, 2013; de la Torre et al. 2013). In a recent publication,we analyzed the relationship between the plausible distribution ofbig game and the actual composition of faunal assemblages for fourLMP sites (Rios-Garaizar and García-Moreno, 2015). We proposedthen that, to explain the variability in faunal assemblages, it is moreimportant to focus on the socially- and culturally-mediated selec-tion than on the natural availability of faunal resources. Given thesefindings, we are going to explore, through an integral analysis oflithic technology (Rios-Garaizar, 2007), similar relationships be-tween the variability in lithic technology and environmental
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features, cultural traditions or the socio-economic organization ofNeanderthal populations.
Taking into account that the available information is quite un-even, we have chosen to use the directly analyzed sequence atAxlor (Rios-Garaizar, 2012a) and the information obtained from theonly Mousterian level at Amalda (Rios-Garaizar, 2010) to describethe major characteristics of regional LMP lithic technology(Table 1). Wewill then use the available archaeological informationto discuss the directly obtained results in order to present acomprehensive description of the LMP lithic technology in thisregion.
2. Materials and methods
The main results from the analysis of the Axlor and Amaldaassemblages will be summarized. This techno-functional analysiswas designed to provide insights into the economic organizationand social structure of Neanderthal groups. To do so, lithic assem-blages will be discussed from an integral viewpoint. This willevaluate the raw material procurement strategies, productionsystems, and management and use of lithic implements usingavailable contextual information. The analysis assumes that each ofthe steps in the decision-making process involved in lithic pro-duction and use are interdependent, and production itself dependson the needs, objectives and limits of a given Paleolithic society(Dobres and Hoffman, 1994; Stout, 2002; Rios-Garaizar, 2007,2012a). The indirectly-obtained data have also been processed andinterpreted following the same approach.
Information on other Middle Paleolithic sites in the region(Fig. 1) was systematically recovered from the available publica-tions. One of the main problems faced when compiling this reviewis the inconsistency in the kind of information available. Most of thesites have never been published in detail and the type and quality ofinformation available on excavation procedures, stratigraphy,faunal, and lithic assemblages is quite variable. Additionally, all thisinformation has been approached using different methodologies,making it difficult to synthesize it. Another major drawback is theabsence of radiometric dates, which are only available for a fewlevels. Moreover, the only long sequence covering the Late MiddlePaleolithic to have been published in some detail is that from theAxlor rock shelter excavated by J.M. Barandiar�an (Barandiar�an,1980), while others such as Arrillor (S�aenz de Buruaga, 2014) orAbri Olha 2 (Lapace and S�aenz de Buruaga, 2000; Deschamps, 2010)have only been partially published or are pending a more detailedpublication of their archaeological assemblages. Some reviewworks have been published in the last 30 years, with thoseby Balde�on (1990a), S�aenz de Buruaga (2000) and Arrizabalaga(2005) being the most thorough. We also undertook this reviewtask in 2007 (Rios-Garaizar, 2012a), but important developmentshave taken place since then. Similar problems and efforts have beenalready developed for neighboring regions, particularly for SW
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France, and a chronological organization of the different MiddlePaleolithic technocomplexes has been recently proposed (Jaubert,2012).
Besides the direct analysis of the published data, we have alsodirectly analyzed, and following the same methodology, many ofthe lithic assemblages included in this study (see Rios-Garaizar,2005, 2010, 2012a, 2016; Rios-Garaizar and Mozota, 2012; Rios-Garaizar et al. 2010, 2013, 2015). The collections from Koskobilo,Mugarduia N and Arrillor have been quickly observed in order togain a better insight of Middle Paleolithic technological variabilityin the region.
3. Results
3.1. Axlor
Situated at the head of Arratia Valley, close to the mountainpasses of Dima and Barazar (<600 m.a.s.l), the caves of Balzola(Regalado et al. 2012) and Axlor have Middle Paleolithic levels. TheAxlor rock shelter was discovered in 1932 by J. M. Barandiaran, andthis was the last site he excavated between 1967 and 1974(Barandiar�an, 1980). These excavations dug through a long strati-graphic sequence (levels III to VIII) containing Middle Paleolithicassemblages (Fig. 2). More recently, starting in 1999 a team led by J.E. Gonz�alez-Urquijo, J. J. Iba~nez, and J. Rios-Garaizar (Rios-Garaizaret al., 2003; Gonz�alez-Urquijo et al., 2014), re-excavated the entiresequence (levels A to N), adding some previously-unknown levelsto the sequence (PeR) (Fig. 2). The lithic assemblage recoveredduring the 1967e74 excavations was originally studied by Balde�on(1999) and later by Rios-Garaizar (2012a). The material recoveredduring the new excavations has only been partially studied, butrelevant data are available for the LMP levels at the site (Gonz�alez-Urquijo et al., 2006, 2005; Rios-Garaizar, 2004, 2005). Detailed in-formation on the faunal assemblages and human remains is alsoavailable (Basabe, 1973; Altuna, 1989; Casta~nos, 2005). The levelsnoted first during Barandiaran's and later during Gonzalez/Iba~nez/Rios-Garaizar's excavations do not entirely correspond. The basallevels from Barandiaran's sequence (VI to VIII) can be linked to themore-recently excavated levels N andM, and the Upper levels (III toV) to levels B to F.
The long sequence at Axlor reveals the nature of technologicaland cultural changes brought about by Neanderthal groups in thisregion. One of the levels below the original sequence excavated byBarandiaran, level R, was recently studied (Lazu�en and Gonz�alez-Urquijo, 2015). This level has been attributed to MIS5e4 and theindustry recovered from a very small surface is described as EMP. Itsposition below the undated level N-VIII has been used as sup-porting evidence for this attribution, but the reality is that there areno dates or environmental data to support such a claim. Moreover,the lithic assemblage is very different to those noted at key EMPregional sequences (Lezetxiki VI and VII, Arlanpe SQ1e3, Castillo
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Fig. 1. Map of the Eastern Cantabrian Region with the main sites mentioned in the text.
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24e26) (�Alvarez-Alonso and Arrizabalaga, 2012; �Alvarez-Alonso,2014; Rios-Garaizar et al., 2015). These differences are revealed inthe high use of imported flint, in the relevance of ramified pro-ductions, in the near absence of Levallois technology and in theabsence of bifacial macro-tools.
The lower part of the sequence (levels VI, VII, VIII, MeN) has notbeen directly dated, but there is some indication, based on theabundance of red deer, that these occupations took place during atemperate MIS3 event. The most characteristic feature of theselevels is the presence of repeatedly-used fireplaces, more so inlevels N-VIII (Rios-Garaizar et al. 2003; Gonz�alez-Urquijo et al.,2008). The faunal assemblage is mainly composed of red deer(Altuna, 1989). Some bone tools have been identified, among thembone retouchers, a chisel, some retouched bone fragments and apossible bone fragment decorated with parallel incisions (Mozota,2012). In level VIII Barandiaran recovered a pebble with anthro-pogenic modifications interpreted by Barandiar�an and Apellaniz asrepresenting a decoration. A recent re-analysis of the piece vali-dates the hypothesis of intentional modification with symbolicmeaning (García-Diez et al. 2013), but, in our opinion, no conclusivetechnological argument has been given to support such an inter-pretation. This opinion is based on the poor conservation of the flatsurface of the pebble; on the irregularity of the putative grooves; onthe fact that the more plausible technological or use related originsof the traces has not been ruled out; and in the fact that the
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material used (sandstone pebble), albeit rarely used for tool mak-ing, was very common in the surroundings and, thus, is notextraordinary in the Axlor sequence.
The lithic assemblages from these levels reveal a complex pro-visioning strategy based on the transport of ready-made flintblanks and tools; the maintenance of these tools; the re-use ofsome of them to generate an in situ secondary production througha ramified Levallois system; and the use of local raw materials(mudstone and quartz) as substitutes for the exhausted flint tools(Gonz�alez-Urquijo et al. 2006; Rios-Garaizar et al. 2015b) (Fig. 3:12e13). Flint in this level was mostly obtained from northernsources (Flysch flint) although southern sources (Trevi~no andUrbasa), and even more distant ones, were also used (Gonz�alez-Urquijo et al. 2006). The predominant technological features arethose of recurrent centripetal Levallois exploitation systems (Fig. 3:1e9, 11), with a prevalent micro-levallois production (Fig. 3: 1e2,6e7). The toolkit primarily comprises flat side-scrapers (Fig. 3:10e11) and denticulates. Points are quite abundant, with some verylight points showing a number of impact traces found amongstthem (Rios-Garaizar, 2007, 2012b) (Fig. 3: 8e9). All these featuresindicate residential occupations entailing complex subsistence andtool provisioning systems.
Axlor's Upper Sequence (levels FeB, VeIII) has been dated to theend of the Middle Paleolithic. Level D has two radiocarbon dates:42,010 ± 1280 uncalBP (AMS on bone, Beta-144262, Gonz�alez-
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Fig. 2. Synthetic plan and section of Axlor's 1967e1974 and 1999e2008 excavations. The excavation plan has been adapted from the original by L. Teira published in Rios-Garaizaret al. (2003). The 1967e1974 section has been adapted from the original by J. M. Barandiaran 1980.
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Urquijo and Ib�a~nez, 2002) and >43,000 uncalBP (AMS on bone,Beta-225486, Rios-Garaizar, 2012a). Level F, at the base of the UpperSequence, has yielded two radiocarbon dates, >47,500 uncalBP and33,310 ± 360 uncalBP (Beta-225487 and Beta-225485, both AMS onbone, Rios-Garaizar, 2012a). These dates are quite problematic,especially the latter one, which situates the base of level F around33 kyr BP. Different interpretations are possible given this scenario,but there probably are contamination problems, similar to thosedetected at other sites (e.g. Arrillor e Higham et al. 2014). Never-theless, mounting evidence suggests that the level D palimpsestformed around 45 kyr BP so the level C and level B occupationsmust be slightly younger. Inside this Upper Sequence some levels (F
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and D) are thick palimpsests that reveal repeated occupations at thesite. On the other hand, levels E and C, although they have ananthropogenic origin, are significantly less dense in findings, sug-gesting that they represent more ephemeral occupations(Gonz�alez-Urquijo et al., 2014). Moreover for level C several refit-tings have been obtained, suggesting that it represents an almostsynchronic occupation (Rios-Garaizar, 2004). Level B represents aslightly more intense occupation where some form of space orga-nization has been observed. During the excavation made in 2000 aparticular semi-circular concentration of limestone blocks, with anempty space inside from previous excavations made byBarandiar�an, was recorded. It was also documented a gradual
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decrease of material density from this space towards the exterior ofthe limestone block accumulation, suggesting some sort of dwell-ing, but more analysis are needed to assess the nature of thisprobable structure (Rios-Garaizar, 2004). The faunal assemblage inthe Upper Sequence (levels FeB, VeIII) is dominated by red deer,Bos/Bison, horses and goats (Altuna, 1989; Casta~nos, 2005), withevidence of intense carcass processing and almost no carnivoreremains. Bone tools are abundant with retouchers representing thepredominant type (Mozota, 2012). There are also other bone toolssuch as chisels (Mozota, 2008) or polishers (Mozota, 2009).
The lithic assemblage from the Barandiar�an excavations wasoriginally published by Balde�on (1999), and later reviewed by Rios-Garaizar (2012a). The lithic materials recovered until 2003 from theexcavations undertaken by Gonzalez/Iba~nez/Rios-Garaizar wereinitially studied by J. Rios-Garaizar (Rios-Garaizar et al. 2003; Rios-Garaizar, 2004, 2005, 2012a; Gonz�alez-Urquijo et al., 2005, 2006).Later on, the 2004e2008 materials were again partially studied byJ. Rios-Garaizar (unpublished). There is also a contribution to theknowledge of level D made by Frías (2013), but some of the datapresented there contradict our own observations of level D, whichprevents the use of this information. An example of this contra-diction is the proportion of resharpening flakes observed by Frías(~5%), which, if we compare it to our own data from levels D and IV(>50%), seems far too small. Most of the materials from recentexcavations (1999e2008) were never deposited in the ArkeologiMuseoa of Bilbao and therefore remain inaccessible.
The technological analysis of the lithic assemblages from Axlor'sUpper Sequence reveals a complex provisioning strategy, which isbased on the transport of ready-made flint blanks and tools; themaintenance and reuse of these tools, with evidence of a ramifiedQuina system; and the occasional use of other materials (Mudstone,Tobaceous Mudstone-aka Vulcanite-, Quartz) to obtain differenttools that made up the available toolkit.
The proportion of flint use is very high, comprising more than80% of the total assemblage in levels B, D, IIIeV. The ratio ofnorthern (Flysch) to southern (Urbasa and Trevi~no) flint sources isvariable ranging from ca. 2:1 in levels B and C to ca. 1:1 in level D.Flint assemblages are characterized by the production of big-sizedflakes using a Quina system. Major features supporting this claiminclude the asymmetrical section of the flakes, the frequent captureof cortical backs, the existence of negatives that indicate the exis-tence of previous changes in flaking surfaces, and the presence oftypical platforms (broad flat, flat �a pan, asymmetrical dihedral).Almost no cores were found in these levels, but the presence of atypical Quina core in level B is noteworthy (Fig. 4: 3). This pro-duction took place away from the site, probably near the major flintoutcrops where, at several sites around the Kurtzia Flysch outcrop,typical Quina cores and flakes have been identified. These flakes,transformed into Quina side-scrapers, were transported to the site.Few flakes in these assemblages can be linked to centripetal pro-duction systems (Levallois or Discoid). There are also few examplesof what could possibly be bladelet cores, similar to those describedfrom Morin, Covalejos or Esquilleu (Maillo-Fern�andez, 2005;Martín et al. 2006; Cuartero et al., 2007). Having said this, no realbladelets have been recovered in these levels.
Once at the site, the Quina side-scrapers were curated and usedas second generation cores, following a typical ramified Quinaproduction system which has been identified at several sites inFrance and northern Spain (Bourguignon, 1997; Bourguignon et al.2004; Costamagno et al., 2006; Cuartero et al. 2015; Soressi, 2004)(Fig. 4: 1e2, 4e5). This process was continuously reproduced at thesite, such that most of the artifacts in all these levels are typicalresharpening flakes (Rios-Garaizar, 2012a). Among them hinged,overshot and Clactonian flakes (types II, III and IV sensuBourguignon, 1997) are the most common types, implying that
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different knapping techniques were used (direct hard hammerpercussion for type IV, soft hammer-bone retouchers-tangentialpercussion for types II and III). As we have shown in previousworks, this process enables the maintenance of side-scrapers andthe production of fresh flakes (Rios-Garaizar, 2004, 2005, 2012a;Rios-Garaizar et al. 2015b). Side-scrapers were intensivelyreduced until many of them were totally exhausted (see forexample Fig. 4: 5). Resharpening flakes are very variable in size andmorphology. A careful selection of bigger flakes (basically types IIIand IV) to make new retouched tools, mostly side-scrapers (Fig. 4:6e7), denticulates and slightly retouched flakes was observed inlevel B (Fig. 4: 8e12). Usually these flakes are thinner and haveedges that are significantlymore acute than those from parent side-scrapers. Retouched tools made on resharpening flakes represent38.7% of the total in level D and 32.8% in level B, which is indicativeof the importance of this process. The abundance of bone re-touchers found in these levels further strengthens this idea(Mozota, 2012).
The use of raw materials such as mudstone or quartz iscompletely different. In mudstone two unipolar cores that pro-duced elongated flakes (laminar flakes) were recovered in level Band C, and several refitting sequences have been obtained in thismaterial. The blanks obtained this way are long, thin andwith acuteedges (Fig. 4: 13e14), traits almost impossible to obtain with theramified Quina production made on flint at the site. Besides, a type3 cleaver made on ophite flake (109 � 96 � 24 mm) was recoveredin level C (Fig. 4: 15), and a chopper made on sandstone in level D.In levels III to V from Barandiar�an's excavations four more big flakeswith transversal edges made on mudstone were found. Addition-ally, 10 choppers and chopping tools made onmudstone, tobaceousmudstone, sandstone and quartzite were identified.
The characteristics of these levels suggest that they are theresult of successive occupations of the rock shelter, in which theintensive curation, production and use of lithic tools can be noted.Additionally, the abundance of intensively-processed faunal re-mains (Casta~nos, 2005), many of them selected to be used indifferent activities (flint knapping, chiseling, polishing), and theabsence of visible structures such as fireplaces, point to repeated,intense and short occupations. Moreover, the fact that the tech-nological provisioning system relies on the import of tools and on aramified production, while local raw-materials are used only tomake large-sized tools, or tools with long cutting edges, revealsimportant differences with the more long-duration occupationsidentified in Axlor's Lower Sequence. Therefore, the UpperSequence can be interpreted as a palimpsest of ephemeral occu-pations dedicated to processing carcasses and animal by-productssuch as bone, marrow or hide.
Above level B, the rock shelter was only occupied sporadically.The lithic assemblage from level A is small (34 remains), plus 8more pieces recovered by Barandiar�an in level II. Between 2006 and2008 levels I and II from Barandiar�an's excavations were excavatedin less than 1 m2 and some materials from level A were alsorecovered. Above it, in level I, some Upper Paleolithic materialswere also found (G�onzalez-Urquijo, 2009). Level II-A is probably theresult of the last Middle Paleolithic occupations at the site, andcuriously, even thoughmaterial is scarce, the Quina features are notso evident and there is less use of imported flint than in levels B orD (Rios-Garaizar, 2004).
3.2. Amalda
Further east, in the Urola valley, one can find the cave of Amalda,an important site excavated in the 1980s by Altuna et al. (1990). TheMiddle Paleolithic level (VII) is found at the base of the archaeo-logical deposit (Fig. 5). This level was originally assigned to MIS4
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Fig. 4. Lithic materials from Axlor's Quina levels. 1e2: Transverse Quina side-scrapers; 3 Quina core; 4e5: Convergent Quina exhausted side-scrapers; 6: Transverse side-scrapermade on type IV resharpening flake;: Lateral simple side-scraper made on type IV resharpening flake; 8e12: Resharpening flakes with use-related retouch or small retouchmodifications; 13e14: Elongated flakes made on mudstone; 15: Simple cleaver made on ophite from level C.
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due to its stratigraphic position above Eemian sediments (MIS5e),but there are doubts regarding this chronology as it is likely morerecent (Rios-Garaizar, 2012a). The archaeological occupationsextend over a large surface (around 60 m2) where a structured
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occupation pattern has been observed (Rios-Garaizar, 2012a). Thefaunal assemblage was interpreted as representing the intensivehunting of Rupricapra rupicapra (Altuna et al., 1990). A recentrevision of the faunal assemblage undertaken by J. Yravedra has
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Fig. 5. Plan and section of Amalda's excavation. Originals adapted from J. Altuna et al., 1990.
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questioned the anthropic origin of the Rupricapra remains' accu-mulation, and, in turn, suggesting a carnivore origin to it (Yravedra,2006, 2007). This interpretation, however, has also been ques-tioned by some authors (Rios-Garaizar, 2012a) and even rejected byothers (Altuna and Mariezkurrena, 2010).
The lithic assemblages were originally studied by Balde�on(1990b) and then reviewed by us (Rios-Garaizar, 2010, 2012a).Flint is the most used material, with the Upper Cretaceous Flysch(15e60 km) the most used variety. Occasionally other flint sourceslocated in the south (45e75 km), namely Urbasa and Trevi~no, werealso used. The second most important raw material is tobaceousmudstone, whose primary source is located close to the site andwhose pebbles can be easily found on the Urola riverbanks near thesite (Arrizabalaga and Tarri~no, 2010; Kortabitarte, 2011). Otherrocks, such as ophite, limestone, sandstone, mudstone or limonite,which are present in the surroundings, were used less intensively(Rios-Garaizar, 2010).
These different rocks were transported back to the site underdifferent formats. Flysch flint was introduced as raw flakes orconformed tools; there are only two low quality nodules thatsuggest direct catchment. Other flint types were transported backas retouched tools produced away from the site, mostly side-scrapers. Flint blanks and retouched tools were intensivelycurated and exploited at the site (Fig. 6: 10). Different secondgeneration flake production strategies have been documented atthe site. Among them the most important are the ramified Levalloisand Discoid productions used to obtain small flakes (Fig. 6: 2, 6e8);
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and Kombewa-like exploitation, which probably took place duringthe first stages of flake Levallois productions (Fig. 6: 1). The pres-ence of a Quina ramified production has been identified, and lastlysome elongated flakes were obtained from a burin-like kind ofproduction (Rios-Garaizar, 2010; Rios-Garaizar et al. 2015b).
The tobaceous mudstone was managed in a specific way: theinitial reduction stages were carried out away from the site, butprobably in a nearby locality. Then, ready-prepared Discoid coresand big cortical flakes were brought to the cave. The cores wereexploited to obtain big-sized, triangular and asymmetrical flakes(pseudolevallois points) (Fig. 6: 4e5), while cortical flakes weretransformed into retouched tools. A number of pebbles were alsotransformed into simple handaxes. Lastly, the rest of the raw ma-terials, namely ophite, sandstone and mudstone, were specificallyused to produce big-sized tools, some of them big flakes withtransversal edges classifiable as Type 7 Hachereau (sensu. Benito delRey, 1973) (Fig. 6: 9), some of them more typical cleavers on flakeand on pebble (Fig. 6:11).
Use-wear analyses have provided insights into the differentactivities carried out at the site and the relationship betweentechnology, typology and function (Rios-Garaizar, 2010). The ac-tivities identified are butchery, wood and hideworking, for whichtobaceous mudstone, mudstone and ophite flakes and tools,including hand-axes and cleavers, were used in their initial phases,when weight and massive edges were needed. On the other hand,imported flint tools were used during the intermediate phases ofthe hide and woodworking activities, shaping the rough-outs into
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Fig. 6. Lithic materials from Amalda's level VII. 1e2: Levallois cores on flake; 3: Mousterian point; 4e5: Tobaceous mudstone pseudolevallois points; 6e8: Small Levallois flakes; 9:Big ophite flake with transversal edge; 10: Quina side-scraper; 11: Mudstone Type 0 cleaver (2/3 actual size).
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almost finished tools. Lastly, small flakes and tools were used forprecision butchery, and for the finalization or repairing of thewooden tools, hide garments, ligatures, etc.
The site of Amalda III, close to Amalda, yielded a lithic collectionvery similar to that of Amalda's level VII, with Discoid exploitationof tobaceous mudstone and the presence of typical Mousteriantools such as side-scrapers and Mousterian points.
4. Discussion and conclusions
Defining the temporal limits of the LMP in the Eastern Canta-brian Region is quite a complex endeavor given our limitedknowledge of its chronology at many sites and sequences. Also, thelack of information on the material culture associated to the lastphases of theMiddle Paleolithic in comparison to the earlier phases(EMP) hampers its definition.
Using the Axlor sequence as an example, and comparing it withthe available archaeological record, we can put forward a hypoth-esis on the chrono-cultural articulation of the Middle Paleolithic inthe Eastern Cantabrian Region. This of course needs to be testedagainst more precise datings, environmental data and additionaltechnological analyses. Despite this, we propose the existence ofdifferent phases from ca. 170 to 40 ka BP. These phases are strati-graphically and chronologically defined, but are also strongly linkedto particular technocomplexes and are, in our opinion, truebehavioral trends that define the historical evolution of Neander-thal populations in this region.
The first phase corresponds with the regional EMP, and is stillunder evaluation. Data obtained at Arlanpe and Lezetxiki providesome insights into Late Middle Pleistocene human occupations(MIS7e5e). We can note the existence of an early phase of this EMPcharacterized by a lack of bifacial tools (hand-axes and cleavers),which is represented at Lezetxiki in its levels VII and VI (�Alvarez-Alonso and Arrizabalaga, 2012); at Arlanpe in SQ1 and SQ2 (Rios-Garaizar et al. 2015a): and probably at Ventalaperra's level III(Rios-Garaizar, 2016) and at Atxagakoa (L�opez-Quintana et al.2005). In these assemblages lithic raw-material provisioning re-lies on local rocks, but moderate amounts of imported tools andflakes made on distant flint are also present. For flint and mudstoneproduction the use of Levallois and Discoid methods is noted, andthese are sometimes combined with other systems such as SSDA(Syst�eme par surface de d�ebitage altern�e) or even blade pro-ductions. The presence of ramified productions does not constitutean important part of the lithic assemblage. A later phase of this EMPis exemplified in the SQ3 assemblage from Arlanpe, which sharesmany characteristics with the so-called Late Acheulean or SouthernAcheulean defined for SW France (Turq et al. 2010). The Complex IIIof Jupiter too (Colonge et al. 2015) and perhaps also Lezetxiki's levelV (Balde�on, 1993) or some of the basal levels at Zerratu (S�aenz deBuruaga and Mujika Alustiza, 2003, 2004) can be linked to thistechnocomplex. Themain features of these assemblages are the useof local raw materials, and the presence of bifacial shaping usingthick hand-axes and simple cleavers. Flake production is charac-terized by the use of more simple reduction systems, such as SSDAin the case of Arlanpe, which are accompanied by some Discoid andLevallois products.
Following the Eemian interglacial few human occupations havebeen documented between the late part of MIS5 and MIS4(~60e95 ka). Nevertheless there are levels situated at the base ofsome sequences (Axlor's level R, and Arrillor's Lower Complex) thatcould be placedwithin this timeframe. TheMiddle Paleolithic levelsat Askondo (11e13) have been dated back to ca. 68 ka (Rios-Garaizar and Garate, 2012; Torres and Ortiz, 2012); the PatinatedSeries found around Bayonne, which has also been dated to ca. 68 ka(Colonge et al. 2015), and the Olha 2's levels SieSm, which are
Please cite this article in press as: Rios-Garaizar, J., A new chronological aCantabrian Region, Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10
found at the base of the sequence (Laplace and Saenz de Buruaga,2000), could also correspond with this phase. Few technologicaldata are available for this assemblage, but the presence of Quinaand Levallois technologies, the use of resharpening flakes and thepresence of mousterian points have been attested.
The next phase corresponds with the Vasconian Mousteriancomprising Cleavers and Discoid technology (Deschamps, 2010,2014). The Late Mousterian horizon found at the sites aroundBayonne (Le Priss�e and Jupiter), dated between 34 ± 3 and50 ± 5 ka, have yielded lithic assemblages with Discoid technology,Type 0 cleavers and typical Mousterian hand-axes (Colonge et al.2015). Similar assemblages have been excavated at Gatzarria'slevel Cjr, which yielded a>47.4 ka date (Barshay-Szmidt et al. 2012),and in Abauntz's level H which has been dated by AMS to >45 kaand by AAR to 47 ± 7 ka (Utrilla et al. 2015). The levels from Olha 2'sMedium Complex have a Discoid-based technology, with evidenceof secondary productions and a number of cleavers and Mousterianhand-axes (Deschamps, 2010), although the chronological positionof this level remains uncertain. Some of these characteristics arealso found in Amalda's level VII, but in this occasion with a greaterpresence of Levallois and ramified productions (Rios-Garaizar,2010), this raises some questions about whether we shouldinclude this assemblage in the Vasconian technocomplex, or indi-cate that the presence of cleavers is not enough for such attribution.Moreover, for Amalda's level VII there are serious chronologicaluncertainties, an initial Würm chronology was initially assigned toAmalda level VII's Middle Paleolithic occupations (Altuna et al.1990), but in our opinion (see Rios-Garaizar, 2012a for a moredetailed discussion), and given the nature of its lithic assemblage, itis probably related to the later phases of LMP. Nevertheless, thismatter will be only solved through direct dating.
Given all this information the stratigraphic position and thechronology of the Vasconian is still unclear. The chronology of theselevels is difficult to establish. Most of the Vasconian levels seem tohave a chronology around 50 ka BP. At the Jupiter open-air site, theVasconian occupation layer is found over a sedimentary unit datedby OSL to 50 ± 5 ka, which would be coherent with the >50 kahypothesis. Some other levels from the Cantabrian Region have alsobeen linked to the Vasconian (Deschamps, 2014). For example, level20e at El Castillo (S�anchez-Fern�andez and Maillo-Fern�andez, 2007)has a Discoid-based technology with cleavers. All the dates asso-ciated with level 20 were obtained from Mousterian a from Ober-maier's excavations and these range between 42.1 ± 1.5 ka and>47.3 (Bernaldo de Quir�os et al. 2006). Also La Vi~na's level XIII,which was originally dated to 48.1 ± 1.6 ka, was defined as a QuinaMousterian with cleavers (Fortea, 1999). Recent dates obtainedfrom this level push back its chronology to >55 ka (Higham et al.2014). Lastly, the date from Harregi is not associated with a clearstratigraphic context (S�aenz de Buruaga and Ebrad, 2004) and thedates from Noisetier's couche 1 (Mourre et al. 2008) seem toorecent (between 31.5 and 42 ka BP) to be considered representativeof the chronology of the Vasconian. It seems so that there areserious problems not only to define the chronological position ofthe Vasconian, but to find a common nexus between these in-dustries other than the mere presence of cleavers, because theyoccur in Quina, Levallois and Discoid assemblages.
Slightly after this phase of Discoid technology with cleavers, it isworth noting the presence of a Levallois-based technology inAxlor's levels MeN (VIeVIII), in Arrillor's Medium Complex (Amkand Smkl), and in Gatzarria's level Cj (Laplace and S�aenz deBuruaga, 2003; Ready, 2013). These levels are characterized bythe presence of structured and repeated fireplaces, which evidencean increased residentiality, and by a subsistence strategy based onselected prey, red deer in the case of Axlor's level N-VIII(Rios-Garaizar and García Moreno, 2015) and Gatzarria's Cj (Ready,
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J. Rios-Garaizar / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e14 11
2013). Arrillor's Amk and Axlor's level N suggest they were formedunder temperate climatic conditions (Hoyos et al. 1999; Gonz�alez-Urquijo et al. 2005; Iriarte-Chiapusso et al. 2014). Arrillor's levelAmk and Gatzarria's level Cj have been dated to ca. 45e50 ka(Ready and Morin, 2013), which roughly coincides with theDO12e15 interval. In these levels the lithic raw material provi-sioning system relied on the use of local raw materials (mudstonefor Arrillor and Axlor, quartzite for Gatzarria). Flint-made side-scrapers, Mousterian points and flakes were imported to these sitesmaking up, in the case of Axlor N, less than 50% of the total numberof artifacts. It is worth noting the relative abundance of Mousterianpoints in Axlor's levels N-VIII, many of them elongated. The use-wear analysis carried out on these points has revealed that theywere used as hunting weapon tips (Rios-Garaizar, 2012b), probablyin distance hunting. A recurrent Levallois knapping strategy wasused at Axlor, both for mudstone and flint production. Isturitz'slevel P has yielded a lithic assemblage with a clear Levalloiscomponent, with flat side-scrapers and Mousterian points whichappear alongside some core-like bifaces and atypical cleavers(Delporte, 1974). In this level several fireplaces have also beenrecorded and the faunal assemblage is dominated by red deer andhorse. Nevertheless, the fact that these level was excavated in theearly 20th century, and that there are not detailed records about thestratigraphy, taphonomic issues, etc., raises some questions aboutits integrity and relevance. Lezetxiki's level IV, with fireplaces and ared deer-dominated faunal assemblage, has technological featuresthat link it to these ‘Levallois’ levels (Balde�on, 1993). Lastly, therecently reviewed El Cuco sequence has shown to have some levels,especially level VII, with a clear ramified Levallois (microlevallois)production (Rasines et al. in preparation).
Above these ‘Levallois’ levels a remarkable change in lithictechnology can be observed at Axlor. The lithic assemblages fromlevels VeIII (FeB) show a flint-made Quina industry, also with anabundance of bone retouchers and strong evidence of recycling andsecondary-flake production, as well as some big flakes withtransversal edges, even real cleavers. These levels, dated to ca.
Fig. 7. Model proposed for the chronological organization of the different Middle Paleoliadscription of Amalda's level VII to any technocomplex is very difficult, and no precise chronsome cautions about their integrity and significance.
Please cite this article in press as: Rios-Garaizar, J., A new chronological aCantabrian Region, Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.
45 ka, evidence a worsening of climatic conditions. Bos/Bison andhorses represent an important part of the diet, and species such asreindeer make an appearance (Gomez-Olivencia et al. 2014). Thereis no clear evidence of residentiality because the levels are inter-preted as representing palimpsests formed by repeated short andintensive occupations. At Arrillor the levels situated in the BasalComplex (Smc and Smb) have been defined as being ‘DenticulateMousterian’ (Iriarte-Chiapusso et al. 2014). However, the availabledescription of the industrial assemblages, with a lithic industrymade on low quality local flint with denticulates, side-scrapers,some of them thick, associated to bone retouchers, suggest thatthese assemblages could have a Quina component. Isturitz's level Mhas been classified as being a Quina Mousterian, but problems withthis level are similar to those mentioned for level P (Delporte, 1974).The faunal assemblage shows an increase in the types and numberof cold-adapted fauna, such as reindeer, mammoth and woolly-rhino. The lithic industry is dominated by flint tools, many thickQuina side-scrapers and no cleavers. The level has also yieldedsome bone retouchers. Lastly, Lezetxiki's level III has some tech-nological characteristics, despite the admixture with Aurignacianmaterials, which link it to these Quina assemblages (Balde�on,1993).
Lastly, there are few levels on top of the Mousterian sequencesat Axlor and Arrillor that display a number of particular charac-teristics, different to those of previous levels, which remain poorlyknown. In Arrillor's upper levels (Lmc and Lamc) the faunalassemblage is dominated by red deer, and the lithic assemblage ischaracterized by the use of high quality flint, and a toolkitcomposed by side-scrapers, denticulates, points and some UpperPaleolithic-like tools (S�aenz de Buruaga, 2014). Level Lmc wasoriginally dated to 37,100 ± 1000 (BP OxA-6106) (Hoyos et al. 1999),and recently to 44,900 ± 2100 (OxA 21986) for level Lmc, and45,600 ± 2300 (OxA 22654) and >46,800 (OxA 22654) for Lamc(Higham et al. 2014).
The articulation of the regionalMiddle Paleolithic in six separatephases reveals a certain pattern of cultural change between ca. 170and 40 ka BP (Fig. 7). As we have noted in the case of Axlor these
thic technocomplexes from eastern Cantabrian and western Pyrenean regions. * Theology is available. ** Isturitz's levels P and M come from old excavations, this introduces
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J. Rios-Garaizar / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e1412
changes are related to major transformations in settlement dy-namics and landscape use, which could have also been influencedby environmental changes. The Levallois phase is probably relatedto the warm conditions taking place just after DO14 (54e50 ka BP),which triggered the significant expansion of the Atlantic forest(S�anchez-Go~ni et al. 2008). These temperate conditions coincidewith more stable occupations, and the technological behaviorseems to be adapted to the needs arising from this stability. This canbe seen in the use of local rawmaterials, which have enough qualityto obtain Levallois products, and in the refining of ramified Levalloisproduction which helped in maximizing the life of imported rawmaterials. The Quina phase, on the other hand, is related to thedeterioration of climatic conditions, including a significant loss ofwoodland that took place during the H5 event (48e50 ka BP). Inthis case this coincides with less stable occupations and the tech-nology was planned for being highly transportable and to satisfythe immediate need for tools that took place during these short andintense occupation episodes. This succession of Levallois and Quinaassemblages has also been noted at other Cantabrian sites such asCovalejos (Sanguino and Montes, 2005; Martín et al. 2006) or ElEsquilleu (Baena et al. 2012; Cuartero et al. 2015), giving theimpression that this was a general phenomenon in this region. Theexistence of final Mousterian levels dated closer to 40 ka BP withdifferent technologies (Levallois and Discoid) has also been inMorin's level 11 (Maillo-Fern�andez, 2007) and at El Esquilleu(Baena et al. 2012).
This correlation between environmental conditions and tech-nological choices probably means that human groups adapted tofluctuations in the environment by changing their technologies, ashas been suggested for SW and SE France, and for the CantabrianRegion (Daujeard and Moncel, 2010; Delagnes and Rendu, 2011;Discamps et al. 2011; Baena et al. 2012). However, we haverecently demonstrated that Neanderthal groups were capable ofdesigning strategies that made them less dependent on resourceavailability (Rios-Garaizar and García-Moreno, 2015). We have alsonoted the existence of subtle differences in the ways in which thesame technological strategy was applied, as has been notedamongst the Quina technology levels at Axlor (Rios-Garaizar, 2005),revealing the existence of multiple levels of complexity that explainthe technological variability. We have certainly detected that fac-tors not directly related to subsistence or environmental conditionscould have been operating in the selection and application ofdifferent technological solutions. For example, in Amalda's level VIIthe technological complementarity of different productions revealsthat the productive processes (butchery, wood-working, etc.) werestructured in different production phases, suggesting a certain or-ganization of labor (Rios-Garaizar, 2010; Rios-Garaizar et al. 2015b).We should therefore take into account that behavioral adaptationswere also linked to social needs (Barton and Riel-Salvatore, 2012).
Acknowledgements
Part of this work was carried out with doctoral and postdoctoralgrants from Basque Government. We want to thank the help fromAxlor research team between 2000 and 2008. J. Altuna and K.Mariezkurrena also offered important insights and data aboutAmalda excavation. The study of Barandiaran's collection fromAxlor rock-shelter was funded by the Basque Government (Grantnumber: BF107.67). This work was carried out at the Museo Vascoand the Arkeologi Museoa from Bilbao, at the IIIPC from Santander,and at the Centro de Dep�osito de Materiales and Sociedad deCiencias Aranzadi from San Sebastian. The English version of thismanuscript was revised and corrected by Pía Spry-Marqu�es. Finallydiscussions with Laurence Bourguignon, Illuminada Ortega, Shan-non McPherron, Valentín Villaverde, Aleix Eixea, Marco A. Bernal,
Please cite this article in press as: Rios-Garaizar, J., A new chronological aCantabrian Region, Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10
Javier Baena, Alvaro Arrizabalaga, Jos�e M. Maillo, Diego Garate,Alejandro García and Asier G�omez improved significantly thiswork. Three anonymous reviewers made comments on the originalmanuscript that helped significantly to improve it.
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